Sdevine 5689456 agms_dissertation_final

The Amazing Adventures of Comics in The Museum Context

A dissertation submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Art
Gallery & Museum Studies in the Faculty of Humanities

2010

Stephen Devine

School of Arts, Histories and Cultures

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Table of Contents

Copyright Statement p.3

Acknowledgments p.4

Abstract p.5

List of Figures p.6

Foreword p.7

1. Introduction p.9

2 Research Methods p.15

2.1 Introduction p.15

2.2 Case Studies p.15

2.3 Other Sources p.15

3 Case Studies p.16

3.1 Selection of exhibitions p.16

3.2 Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist p.17

3.3 Captured p.39

3.4 Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure p.43

3.5 Overview & Comparison of Case Studies p.48

4 Words & Pictures p.52

4.1 Travelling Through Time as Space p.52

4.2 Darwin, Civic Seeing and Linear Narrative p.57

4.3 The Graphic Novel as Stylistic Template p.62

5 Conclusion p.64

Bibliography p.73

Word Count: 14, 453

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Copyright Statement

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Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Pete Brown, Jeff Horsley and Henry McGhie at The Manchester Museum

for providing me with access to information regarding exhibition development, to Odile

Masia at Imperial War Museum North for her discussion and assistance on many aspects of

the production of Captured, and to Jane Cheng at The British Museum for her insights into

numerous aspects of Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure.

I would also like to thank Chrissie Morgan for taking the time to grant me an in depth

discussion of her work for Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist.

Finally, I also wish to extend my appreciation to Dr Sam Alberti for his patience and

understanding during the writing of this thesis, and for his comments on an early draft of the

text, his encouragement, guidance and support enabled me to develop an understanding of

the subject.

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Abstract

I intend to explore the use of stylistic devices and techniques of comic books and how

they are used in the museum context. By looking at the examples of three exhibitions,

I plan to explore the reductive and additive processes involved in the reading of

images within a sequence, while paying particular attention to the use and purpose of

synecdoche in both comics and museums.

The exhibitions I have chosen to interpret are;

The Manchester Museum’s Charles Darwin : evolution of a scientist, which will be

the primary focus of my exploration, The British Museum’s Manga: Professor

Munakata’s British Museum adventure and The Imperial War Museum North’s

Captured.

I shall be discussing the relevancy of Bennett’s concept of Civic Seeing in connection

to the sequential nature of comic panels and how this may echo the Victorian linear

narrative. As this exploration has led me to consider liminal space this discussion shall

also consider the practice and impact of physical space being used to represent time in

both the museum and the comic book. Whilst comics are often seen as subversive and

connected to subculture and museums staid and traditional, this study will explore how

the opposite can also be true and how this impacts on each and their respective

standing in ‘low’ and ‘high’ culture.

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List of Figures

Fig. 1 - Panels from Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics pp.12-p13 p.10

Fig. 2 - Jagged border device Charles Darwin : evolution of a scientist p.34

Fig. 3 - Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics p.49 p.35

Fig. 4 - Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics p.67 p.36

Fig. 5 – Objects & Illustrations Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist p.37

Fig. 6 - Perimeter Timeline of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist p.49

Fig. 7 - Munakata & Darwin as gatekeepers p.58

Fig. 8 -Perimeter Timeline of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist p.62

Fig. 9 – Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure p.66

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Foreword

In order to begin a discussion based on the use of comic books, their stylistic and

visual devices and the museum exhibition, I shall first address the issue of

terminology. The key terms I will be using in this discussion will be comics,

sequential art and graphic novels.

While the term graphic novel is often used to denote a more mature subject matter

within the field and has connotations of literate acceptability it has developed as a

broad term. Often the term applies to a collection of serialised comics into a single

volume.

The discussion will be concerned more with the form of the medium and less with the

content. For this reason the terms will be treated as interchangeable and for the most

part will refer to them as comics or comic books. While sequential art may encompass

the field completely, for our discussion it is the term of comics that seems to better

convey the broad spectrum and the development of the related visual devices and

traditions. As we shall be concerned with the subject of sequence in terms of narrative

and direction, the term sequential art will be used sparingly so as to minimise

confusion. For a more in depth exploration of the related terminology, Chapter One of

McCloud’s Understanding Comics (2000: 24), presents an excellent discussion of

great clarity.

In connection with the mention of sequential art, it is worth noting that there are also

exceptions to the sequential nature of comics. While these are no less valid in the

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broader discussion, they will not be explored, as this thesis shall assert that it is in the

majority or mainstream of the medium in which our interests lie.

As post-modernism shall also form a central part of our discussion the following will

form the outline for the purposes of the study. Post-modernism defies classification

and rejects, empowering information separately

Strinati (1992) states

"Postmodernism is sceptical of any absolute, universal and all-embracing claim

to knowledge and argues that theories or doctrines which make such claims are

increasingly open to criticism, contestation and doubt" (p.36)

One implication of this is the erosion of divide between high culture and low, or

popular culture. Given the contrasting cultural and historical backgrounds of comics

and museums this is of particular interest to our discussion. As comics may be

considered as popular culture we may interpret the change in status as a result of the

way it sees itself, as Strinati (2004) states ‘ ... postmodern popular culture is

identifiable by its self-conscious awareness of its status as a cultural product.’ (p.225)

Amongst other factors technology such as the internet, information without context or

at least not specific to context and the changing status of high and popular culture has

impacted on the modern consumption. This has impacted on museums and comics

just as it has everywhere else.

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• 1. Introduction

Sequential art, graphic novels and comics may be traditionally thought of as a

medium for children and younger readers, this may be ascribed to the combination of

image and text. We shall explore how this combination of image and text may

actually allow for a deceptively sophisticated communication and reading experience.

We shall return to the different ways in which this reductive function takes place but

for the moment will be concentrating on illustration and the combination with text.

To begin to look at the nature of reductive nature of comics we may examine a

number of panels from McCloud’s Understanding Comics, which explain his

distinction between a pictorial image which operates on the basis of resemblance and

one which is used in order to denote sound. Figure 1 represents a key difference

between the linguistic and the symbolic vocabulary, both of which operate within the

comic.

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Fig.1 - Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics pp.12-p13

Image and text combine to present a less dense reading experience. They do this in

conjunction with, but to a greater degree, than other stylistic elements particular to the

form.

Taking the example presented here within McCloud’s discussion we can see that a

version consisting solely of text, in order to communicate the same message would

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require an involved and intricate discourse depending on a vocabulary consisting of

specific and specialised terminology. The accompanying images communicate

efficiently, supporting the text. The image and text of comics may provide a less

dense experience, though this of course depends to a degree on the visual style of the

artwork. However there still exists a framework reliant on specific and specialist

terminology, but here the language is partly a visual one. McCloud also provides a

point vital to our discussion in the last panel of Figure 1, namely that sequence is not

always denoted by more than one image.

The museum is rich in such visual communication and a combination of physical

objects, symbols, text and illustration form the basis of Charles Darwin: evolution of

a scientist. Some of the cases containing these objects are encapsulated within the

boundaries of the comic panels. A three-dimensional object connected to, or

enshrined within, the sequence of two-dimensional images. While these combinations

themselves are interesting, for reasons of scope we shall not be concentrating to any

great extent on the juxtaposition of artefacts and illustrations although we will

encounter and acknowledge a number of examples. We shall see how in the case of

Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist the readers own constructed story is one

which is supplemented with museum objects. In the case of Manga: Professor

Munakata’s British Museum adventure we will examine the ways in which physical

objects may be represented quite differently when transformed into illustration. For

the main part however our discussion will be concerned with the crossovers between

comics and museums, and the impact therein.

Duncan & Smith describe the processes of reduction and addition,

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“Comic book creators reduce an imagined story to encapsulated fragments (pages and

panels), and readers add those fragments together, along with their own background

knowledge, to create a story” (2009:154)

As is the case with any form of communication where such reduction and addition

occurs the meanings and messages can only be reduced to images and symbols

effectively if the reader is then able to expand the meaning, making sense of the

original intentions of the creators. This of course also happens in the case of physical

artefacts, as meanings are coded and decoded by display and viewing, but again it is

the illustration which is of concern here.

The reductive nature of visual representation is not as drastic as it may seem when

initially compared to written text. The meaning of an image based heavily on

resemblance or visual similarity could be argued to be reliant on an understanding of

a virtually universal nature. Regardless of language practically all humans would

recognise, for example a representation of a face. The realism or abstract nature of the

image may affect this but in general it would be recognised with little or no

instruction. On the other hand written text is developed within a culture, it’s meaning

peculiar to those within and party to the traditions of the originators.

Visual similarity and representation means that another reduction takes place, namely

the reduction of pre-required knowledge on the part of the reader. The issue of

language and required familiarity is removed from the equation as the viewer can

make sense of the icons by drawing comparisons on a purely visual level.

Recognising, decoding and understanding a message represented by visual similarity

in this way is quite different to the understanding of a written word. The written word

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of course performs the same functions of reduction and addition as characters are used

by the writer to form words with the intention of being read, or deciphered, by the

reader. In the case of visual reduction though, to return again to the example of a face,

a circle and two dots can easily represent a simple visual message. Most importantly

this simplicity is key as the reduction can be easily deconstructed and understood.

The museum is a place awash with reductive communication. To understand this

communication the visitor must decode signs that operate on a variety of levels of

complexity. As with all public spaces, signs are situated to communicate a range of

information to the visitor, the museum contains generally accepted shorthand such as

signposting toilet facilities with the use of the familiar stylised gender silhouette

icons. This signposting extends much further into the use of symbols across the

institution. Surely we are all familiar with the example the head of a sarcophagus

representing the location of the Egyptian collection, or a dinosaur skull denoting the

location of the palaeontology collection on a gallery map? One part of one object of

the collection is used to symbolise and represent entire disciplines. Within the

museum we are familiar with type specimens serving as icons, representing entire

species, artefacts symbolise civilisations and eras of their creation. Specific galleries

often serve to house a collection of specimens from a particular species and

subspecies, the visitor joins the dots and fills the gaps to see how humans are

classified and housed within primates, in turn within mammals. It is in the museum

however that the meanings ascribed to the objects, by tradition, convention and the

curatorial voice, form the very structure of organising, presenting and representing

this knowledge. This reduction is directive, hierarchical and even hegemonic in terms

of the possible interpretations. The subjective nature of this classification and

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structuring present the visitor with a framework to be followed. The visual elements

of the graphic panel clearly may not be understood as objective either, having been

created by a series of originators to portray and communicate a specific intended

message.

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• 2. Research Methods

2.1 Introduction

There are three distinct types of research; descriptive or exploratory research,

explanatory research and evaluative research. Descriptive research has been used in

this study in order to describe the development of the exhibitions and techniques used.

Explanatory research has been used in order to bring the project beyond simple

description, to help explain the development of utilised techniques observed through

the study. Evaluative research was not deemed appropriate for this field of study, as

the subject could not be measured in degrees of effectiveness.

2.2 Case Studies

Case studies were used as focuses within the investigation. They are considered a

well-established research strategy.

2.3 Other Sources

I shall be drawing on a number of sources in this discussion and will be referring to

The Manchester Museum Archives for material relating to the development of

Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist.

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• 3. Case Studies

3.1 Selection of Exhibitions

I intend to introduce three museum exhibitions that utilise the stylistic palette of the

comic book to determine the functions being performed.

The Manchester Museum presents Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist, as

part of a Darwin festival to celebrate the Darwin Biennial.

The Imperial War Museum North looks at the experience of prisoners of war

in Captured.

The British Museum’s Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum

adventure. Professor Munakata is depicted interacting with objects from the

collection of The British Museum. The exhibition is sponsored as part of The

Asahi Shimbun Displays.

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3.2 Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist

The exhibition at The Manchester Museum recounts the life of Charles Darwin by

presenting objects, relating to his life and theories, displayed alongside illustrations of

key moments of his lifetime. To preface the look at the parallels between the

exhibition and the comic book, I will first briefly break down the structure of

development for the exhibition. This will also provide an opportunity to explore the

process and product of the exhibition delivery from separate perspectives.

This development of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist took the form of a

structured series of teams, consisting almost entirely of Manchester Museum staff.

These teams were the Project team, Core content team, Content researchers, and

Discipline based researchers. Beyond this, there was a further team worked on the

Nature Discovery activities, objects and programmes. Nature Discovery, which was

another strand of the Darwin festival, which included a temporary exhibition

presenting a ‘magical world where younger children and their families can explore

nature’. This exhibition, clearly aimed at a younger audience employs cartoonish

elements but is not presented in the linear style of a comic book, opting rather to

present a number of different spaces or ‘Worlds’. Whilst the colourful and vibrant

visual style of Nature Discovery is undeniably aimed at children, it is does not present

the content in as a comic or utilise the associated styles. Perhaps in keeping with, or

an indication of, the increase in status of comic books in cultural terms it is the

younger visitors who are denied ownership of the comic strip. The graphic novel style

is being reserved for the main exhibition. Intended for mature readers and children

alike, but clearly not for children alone.

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In May 2009, the themes and content for the reverse panels had been identified as;

* Early life [childhood collection of natural history objects] / no back

* Student years [objects ordered collection of insects and Stephen’s Entomology] /

classification and description

* Beagle [no objects on illustrated side, lots on reverse of things Darwin saw and

collected] / key themes of diversity and things Darwin saw

* Back in London [Darwin’s finch, other finches and Malthus book] / what is a

species (how do species form)

* Darwin’s practice [Pigeons, pigeons he bred, barnacles, possibly letters] / scientific

practice, what is a scientific theory

* Origin of Species [Origin first edition] / what natural selection is, how it works and

the evidence

* Aftermath [chimp skeleton and Descent of Man] / no back

While we see the themes outlined there is nothing to record the development of the

exhibition’s visual style. Content is king, while the artist has autonomy in terms of the

depiction and display of these themes. I have included the related comments with

each of the themes, as it is important to note that all of the accompanying information

is regarding the objects, as opposed to the illustrated content. We can see that while

Nature Discovery was discussed, (Darwin content development meeting 29/4/2009 –

The Manchester Museum Archives), in terms of its success being ‘dependent on being

non-museum feel’ it seems the same has not been recorded for Charles Darwin:

evolution of a scientist. This description of Nature Discovery and subsequent

omission in relation to Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist seems to raise an

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issue central to our discussion, an allusion to the status of the comic as a mainstream

medium.

To understand Nature Discovery as being ‘dependent on a non-museum feel’ seems to

clearly highlight the omission of this description in connection with Charles Darwin:

evolution of a scientist. In other words, as this exhibition is not dependent on a non-

museum feel, it can be reasoned that the style of display selected is not a deliberate

attempt to move away from a museum feel and rather a decision that keeps the ‘feel’

of the exhibition within the confines of conventional museum display. From this we

may theorise that the ‘comic book’ styling of the exhibition is, at least internally at

The Manchester Museum, felt to be familiar to exhibition styles of museum display

and indeed part of the traditional palette of museum exhibitions. This is further

supported by Chrissie Morgan’s previous work with The Manchester Museum, having

produced artwork loosely based on the Spider-Man origin for a display relating to the

properties of cinchona. Though this was not necessarily influential in terms of the

current exhibition we need look no further to find a precedent. The place of comics

within modern popular culture, with a recently increased influence on cinema and

television, has developed and therefore it is no surprise to see exhibitions that aim to

communicate with the modern, and indeed post-modern, visitor draw on influences

they would find familiar.

Having examined the development of the content we may now look at the ways in

which this choice of style may affect the readers experience of this exhibition, the

subject matter and the content of the gallery.

Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist looks at times of Darwin’s life, which are

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ostensibly unrelated to the theory with which we associate him. The exhibition

presents periods in his life at which he was working towards this realisation. The

exhibition identifies subtle points at which he was forming his theory, one that has

undoubtedly changed the course of history and the perception and understanding of

the origin of our own species.

Curator of Zoology and Head of Natural Environments at The Manchester Museum,

Henry McGhie discusses this approach to the less familiar ages of Darwin.

“Charles Darwin is most familiar to us as an old man with a long flowing beard.

Through Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist, we wanted to communicate more

about Darwin as a person, at the time when he was developing his ideas and to

explore just what his ideas mean to us today. Working closely with our colleagues

throughout The University of Manchester and with artist Chrissie Morgan, we have

re-imagined Darwin’s world down to the minute detail of the flowers and butterfly

species that he would have seen.”

(McGhie, H. 2009, pers. comm., 10 October).

Artist Chrissie Morgan explains the decision was made to take a different direction

from the original intention of a graphic novel style.

“…done in a completely different way at the beginning, in a much more sort of

graphic novel and it definitely isn’t a graphic novel style, it’s more of illustration

rather than a graphic novel. That was because the way that they wanted to actually tell

the story was … this inspirational idea of showing the real person.”

(Morgan, C. 2009, pers. comm., 11 November)

In an attempt to distance the focus from the more populist, dynamic and exaggerated

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elements of graphic novels, which in this instance I would assert is being used to

reference the superhero genre, the decision was made to work in a more illustrative

style. As discussed in the introduction, graphic novel as a blanket term may be used to

describe a number of styles. To further explore the decision to distance the

exhibition’s style, it seems appropriate to take the references to ‘graphic novel style’

as shorthand for the most popular form of graphic novel, the superhero comic. While

Chrissie later discussed the range, and thus is obviously keenly aware of

sophistication and diversity within the field of graphic novels, it is a term she employs

here in reference to a particular style. It is for these reasons that I suggest we interpret

her usage of the term to denote the mainstay of the majority of modern graphic

novels, the traditional superhero genre. Chrissie describes this change of direction, as

rather than a move to get away from anything but more of “an entirely natural

response to working over and over the storyline ‘because the storylines changed a few

times’. Before considering the impact of this decision, and the process behind it, it is

interesting to note how this different direction is not reflected in the marketing and

publicity of the exhibition, ‘Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist, showcasing

fantastic objects - some collected by Darwin himself - and illustrated in a graphic

novel style.’

http://www.museum.manchester.ac.uk/whatson/exhibitions/darwinfestival/

“Graphic novel style relies on low camera angles and … to get action really and I just

felt as though it was not suitable...” Chrissie continues to elaborate and identify the

reasons for using some techniques and elements and not others. “The subject matter

led the way the illustrations were produced really… a straightforward illustrative

quality…” but with elements from graphic novels such as “hard outlines” (Morgan, C.

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2009, pers. comm., 11 November). Although we see that the subject material led the

style of illustration away from the superhero genre, we can still identify narrative

elements that are features of the genre. In comic terms, the simple narrative exists as

the introduction and subsequent resolution of a problem. This exploration of Darwin’s

earlier years sits neatly with Duncan & Smith’s (2009:129) explanation of the

‘complex narrative’, “in which the main plot line is expanded by back story, character

development, and ongoing subplots.” In the case of the exhibition we can see all

elements (including the physical objects) as extensions of this narrative and indeed

the fact this exhibition is a strand of a larger ‘Darwin Festival’ within the museum,

provides some gravity to the notion of elements of this exhibition existing as subplot

of wider context.

Perhaps most interestingly, it is another type of narrative discussed by Duncan &

Smith which raises questions for the choice of narrative style, that of ‘anti-narrative’.

Prevalent in avant-garde comic books the anti-narrative,

“Might contain narrative elements such as setting, characters, and actions these

elements do not fit together to form a comprehensible story. The purpose of such anti-

narrative works is not to tell a story, but rather to evoke a mood or elicit an aesthetic

response.” (2009:129)

Given the aim of the exhibition was to inspire, it’s possible that this, when considered

alongside the desire to distance the exhibition from ‘graphic novel style’ would have

been an interesting way to develop content. The minutes of the content development

team, however, would seem to suggest that what could be seen as a conventional

linear storyline, divided into a sequence of key scenes appears to be the only avenue

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explored in terms of narrative structure. While moving away in visual terms from

some of the more populist elements of the graphic novel it is in the less obvious

narrative structuring that the exhibition clings closest to these roots. Chrissie Morgan

acknowledges that this combination is one that leads the visitor through the exhibition

but describes it as a ‘gentle leading’ and one that always keeps Darwin at the

forefront. This, she also informs us, was the reasoning behind the captions being

raised from the illustrated panels. Utilising the stylistic palette of the comic book

while deliberately keeping Darwin’s words at the forefront in the most literal sense.

As explored by Duncan & Smith (2009:230) the superhero is not defined by his

powers but his persistence and struggles against adversity. While the illustrative style

or measured prose may not reflect the world of caped crusaders and dynamic duo's the

intended inspirational message forms a paean to the power of Darwin, icon among the

pantheon of super-thinkers.

Before we depart from the discussion of Darwin as superhero to the museum

professional, (depicted, as he is here, complete with cape!) I would like to highlight

some key similarities and differences between Darwin and superheroes. Superheroes

are most often identified with a symbol or series of symbols. These perform the

traditional functions of a practical branding exercise by reducing the character, their

powers and intentions to an easily recognised shorthand. This is often seen as a

symbol worn on the chest, cape or both. Batman bears the emblem of a bat, Spider-

man a spider and Superman bears the famous stylised ‘S’. If Darwin were to follow

the superhero trend and bear the symbol most associated with his powers (theories), it

would be his own likeness emblazoned on his chest, or cape! Browne observes that

while Newton has his ‘mythical apple’. Darwin himself is employed to ‘actually show

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him as his theory.’ (2001:509). Browne notes how Darwin has come to embody

natural selection in the same way that Superman is a symbol for ‘truth, justice and the

American way!’ and that in order to do this he has replaced many of his

contemporaries in this field as he alone serves as symbol.

“It is significant that hardly any of the other Victorian evolutionists appear in

cartoons, and of those who do appear Huxley is by far the most regular. None appear

as an ape. This simplification of complex scientific moments of discovery and

exposition is perhaps to be expected. Yet it goes to show how quickly—and how

easily—evolution by natural selection became almost exclusively associated with

Darwin’s name, reducing the important roles of Huxley, Charles Lyell, Herbert

Spencer, Asa Gray, and especially Alfred Russel Wallace.” (Browne, 2001: 507)

The cult of Darwin ensures that he alone stands as icon of his theories and in further

reduction it is as an old bearded man that his entire life and work is visually embodied

and represented. It is in such focus on the importance of Darwin that, given the

parameters of the discussion, we may call to mind Eco (1998) as he describes, ‘… a

museum of memories. Everything that has happened in his lifetime is recorded

here…’ (p.5). However, it is not Darwin or another science-hero that Eco is

discussing but Superman, in his self curated museum dedicated to his own life, the

Fortress of Solitude. When it is often for Darwin in solitude, how different is this

Wunderkammer of the superhero to the museum space reserved for him?

The traditional role of superhero is a conservative one, the role of protector to

maintain the status quo while the role of the villain is that of the radical thinker, the

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one who demands the world must change. “Supervillains … are out to change the

world.” (Duncan & Smith, 2009:230). George Bernard Shaw wrote, (1903:8) ‘The

reasonable man adapts himself to the world; the unreasonable one persists in trying to

adapt the world to himself.’ Here we see Darwin as unable to accept the status quo.

Darwin is not the superhero of the museum professional but a supervillain intent on

changing the world. His success is celebrated in an exhibition, which due to its linear

view, not only seeks to reinforce the status quo but also attempts to revert to an even

earlier form. The unlinear narrative would have been a familiar structure to the visitor

of the Victorian museum as it formed the museum status quo at the time that Darwin,

the unreasonable man, was working on his world changing theory. To complete the

Shaw quote, ‘Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man.” In this

exhibition Bentham’s Panopticon is inverted as the multitude observe one. The

genesis of Darwin’s unreasonable act of villainy is on display.

By looking at the familiar man from an unfamiliar perspective the exhibition can hope

to present the theories in a new light. The sequential image structure of the comic gets

in the way of a more post-modern approach. While it is represents a key story behind

evolution, and may seem perfectly suited to do so, it also acts very much as a

restraint. The viewer can see the evolution of Darwin’s theory as layers of time in a

chronological sequence, but in the same way it restricts the reader by firmly guiding

the manner of exploration of the topic. Preoccupied with the navigation and rituals of

a museum visit the visitor may give little thought to the lack of flexibility of their path

through this exhibition. This visually rich nod to the Victorian narrative may present

traditionally unfamiliar elements of Darwin’s life in an unusual manner but the

reading, as opposed to browsing, of the gallery is most traditional indeed. In the same

way that sentences are formed one word at a time and need to be followed in this

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sequence, in order to appreciate the intended meaning of the author, this gallery too

should be ‘read’ not browsed to unlock the meaning intended by the author, the

authority. This ‘Civic seeing’ serves to reinforce the voice of authority within the

museum as singular. The role of the ‘seer’ is to view in the order they are instructed.

Bennett (1998:263) states that, “Civic lessons embodied in those arrangements are to

be seen, understood and performed by the museum’s visitors.”

Having considered that “unicursal and multicursal labyrinth paradigms were apparent

to classical and medieval scholars” Basu decides, “It is perhaps too tempting not to

locate the unicursal maze (and the maze-walker’s perspective) within a post-modern

aesthetic.” (2007:51) To further consider the post-modern aesthetic, I am concerned

not only with the route taken through the content but also with the erosion of division

between high art and popular culture. By its very nature post-modernism, depending

on and drawing from the panoply of previous philosophical and artistic movements, is

difficult to pin down, however the rejection of the distinction between "high" and

"low" or popular culture is clear. This distinction, both in terms of production and

consumption, is key to our understanding of the relationship between the comic and

the museum.

The modern visitor is likely to experience a vast array of communication on a regular

daily basis. Museums communicate with their audience via a broad range of

communication technologies, old and new. The visitor, prior to reaching the physical

exhibition space may encounter rich and diverse ways both online and onsite,

supplementing and supporting each other. Does this bombardment mean that museum

visitors may be highly sophisticated and discerning in terms of their reading of

information and selection or preferences of format? That the growing number of

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technologies is resulting in a broader acceptance for different media?

The comic, a cheap, disposable mass produced medium, having traditionally held a

low cultural value may be understood in cultural terms to be diametrically opposed to

museums, which literally hold, classify and represent cultural values, both physically

and symbolically. Taking post-modernism into account we may see the shifts in this

relationship that has led us to the interchanges at play between the two.

In order to arrange objects and collections that they would be viewed and understood

Pitt Rivers seemed to touch on the use of space and time. Bennett (1998) informs us

of, Pitt Rivers intent.

‘The law that Nature makes no jumps, can be taught by the history of

mechanical contrivances, in such a way as at least to make men cautious how

they listen to scatterbrained revolutionary suggestions', this can only be so if

such collections are 'arranged in such a manner that those who run may read'.

(p.201)

On the reasoning for this Bennett (1998) relates that Pitt Rivers,

‘…took advantage of the opportunity to outline a distinction between what he

called the 'intellectual mind, capable of reasoning on unfamiliar occurences',

and the 'automaton mind capable of acting intuitively in certain manners

without effort of the will or consciousness.’ (p.200)

This distinction between the intellectual mind and the automaton mind presents

parallels with that of high and low culture and serves as reminder of the post-

modernist impact. Pitt Rivers was distinguishing between intellect and intuition but as

Bennett asserts that ‘By 'those who run' Pitt Rivers meant the working classes.’

27

(p.201)

Not only is space functioning as time, but also the way it is used is intended to impact

on the use of visitor time. This directive function of the museum was, for Pitt Rivers,

as important in his consideration of how the visitor would read, as the information

they would be reading. The comic book’s linear narrative operates in much the same

way. With this exhibition we can see the way this can be implemented without

necessarily being didactic.

On the panels before them the visitor can see that disparate, seemingly random events

in Darwin’s life led to the development of his thoughts. The events may appear

disconnected but as we progress we see the cumulative effects. This neatly parallels

the evolutionary subtext of the exhibition layout in that the events may be of

importance, but it is only in the structure of the sequence that they can be fully

realised. The visitor familiar with galleries which allow and encourage browsing, find

themselves here at an intersection between playful, childlike nostalgic presentation

and Victorian, utilitarian and authoritarian direction through the time and space of the

gallery.

So we can see that the subject matter lends itself to the style, but what of the

structure? Critics of the museum have noted that the traditional layout of an exhibition

is an established strong linear narrative. The sequential layout of the comic book, with

its selected key points and chronological format is a device, one that can only

reinforce the strong linear narrative. The problem for such strong linear narratives, as

identified by Witcomb (2003), is that it presents a single perspective to the viewer.

Contemporary media culture and interactive technologies provide choice, with

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museums viewed as ‘static’ in comparison;

“One of the contexts for this criticism is the way many museums have organised their

exhibits. With a strong linear narrative which allows space for only one point of view

– that of the curator/institution.” (p.128)

It is interesting to note that the previous exhibition in this gallery space was Lindow

Man; A bog body mystery, an exhibition which was explicitly developed around the

structure of an overtly polyvocal approach. Witcomb continues, “ Museum critics

point to the ways in which this single linear narrative is expressed in gallery designs

which have a one way flow based on a clear sequence of exhibits” (p.128)

At the point of entrance to the gallery the exhibition does not immediately present

itself as having a one-way flow. The entrance to the gallery presents the visitor with

the option to turn left or continue ahead around a partition. Should the visitor continue

ahead they will the final panel on the other side, bypassing the timeline and instantly

reaching the end of the exhibition. The lack of clear signage or direction means the

exhibition relies somewhat on the tendency of the visitor to turn left on entering a

room. Having done so the visitor can attach their experience to the timeline on the

left, which then leads the visitor through the space and time of the exhibition. The

intention was initially to present Darwin in a graphic novel style and while this

remains, at least as the description for press and marketing purposes, Chrissie Morgan

explains that the decision was made to depart from this style.

Chrissie describes this change of direction, as rather than a move to get away from

anything but more of, “an entirely natural response to working over and over the

storyline because ‘the storylines changed a few times’. While we can see that the

29

subject material led the style of illustration away from the style of superheroes, we

may still identify familiar traditional narrative elements of this genre. The decision to

focus on the less familiar times of Darwin’s life, as Chrissie puts it, “to get away from

the beard”, does indeed confront the notion that Darwin only ever existed as an old

man. This leads us to explore the inspirational notion that his discoveries came from a

sustained period of effort and that this is something we can all aspire to and emulate.

This applies most of all to young visitors in the audience. While this decision to

distance the illustrative style from that of ‘graphic novel’ is contrary to the notion of

using comics to reach that young audience, we can see that this distancing is

somewhat superficial. It is the content here that clings closest to the concept of the

traditional comic, the origin story, which can be identified as perhaps the staple trope

of the superhero genre.

Morgan researched several of Darwin’s living environments over the course of his

life. The view from Darwin’s window as a child, his college rooms and a

reconstruction of the cabin on the Beagle were researched in an attempt to show the

real person. The research into these external surroundings seem to be an aim to

present the familiar Darwin as a product of his own development, to contextualise the

hard work that Darwin put in and to move away from the notion of a ‘Eureka’

moment. All of which serve to distance the notion of Charles Darwin as a genius. This

deconstruction of the icon enables all visitors, mere mortals after all, to relate with,

and to draw inspiration from, him. This framing of Darwin’s life may serve to remind

us that it is here in museums that he does indeed exist as a superhero, an ordinary man

(with interests shared by curators) who transforms the world with an idea. An

ordinary human being working on the same subjects and the same objects having

30

changed the course of modern scientific thought.

Exactly who though, is he likely to be most inspirational to?

A member of the public with a passing interest in and understanding of

material culture surveying a collection of artefacts?

A young visitor with a scholarly interest in evolution or the process of gaining

knowledge?

Or is it more likely that an emotional connection will be made with a museum

professional admiring relics of the life of a revered icon?

As museum professionals developed the exhibition there may be validity in the notion

that the narrative defines Darwin in superheroic terms. However, it could also be

reasoned that from the viewpoint of the exhibition team, aiming to provide an

inspirational role model, the intention was simply to reach as wide an audience as

possible.

In comic terms the simple narrative exists as the introduction and subsequent

resolution of a problem. This exploration of Darwin’s earlier years sits neatly with

Duncan & Smith (2009) as they discuss the ‘complex narrative’, “in which the main

plot line is expanded by back story, character development, and ongoing subplots.”

(p.129) In the case of the exhibition we see elements, including objects from the

museum collection, as extensions of this narrative. The fact this exhibition is a strand

of a larger ‘Darwin Festival’ within the museum enables us to view elements of this

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exhibition performing the functions of a subplot within the wider context.

Bearing in mind that a stated aim of the exhibition was to inspire, we may theorise,

that when considered alongside the desire to distance the exhibition from ‘graphic

novel style’ the anti-narrative would have been an interesting way to develop content,

though it seems from the minutes of the content development team, that what could be

seen as a conventional storyline, divided into a sequence of key scenes, was the only

avenue explored. We can see that the distance created in visual terms from the surface

appearance of a ‘graphic novel’ is superficial, and it is in the less obvious narrative

structuring, that the exhibition retains the directive functions of a traditional comic.

Morgan acknowledges this combination is one that leads the visitor through the

exhibition but describes it as a ‘gentle leading’ and one that always keeps Darwin at

the forefront. This, she also informs us, was the reasoning behind the captions on the

panels being raised. Utilising the stylistic palette of the comic book and keeping

Darwin’s words at the forefront in the most literal sense. While the artwork takes the

form of a style Morgan described as ‘illustration’ the use of panels represents the

passage of time in the manner of a comic. In parts such as the panels detailing

Darwin’s publication of On The Origin of The Species, as illustrated in Figure 2, we

see the panel borders taking a more dynamic form with a jagged edge. Morgan,

although insistent that the graphic novel style was one which had been consciously

distanced in terms of illustration style concedes to the employment of this visual

device, ‘because we had this overall structure, to stop it looking too busy I used a

fairly traditional zapping sort of thing…Not too over the top, but breaks it up.”

(Morgan, C. 2009, pers. comm., 11 November)

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Fig. 2 – Jagged panel border device

Image Courtesy of The Manchester Museum ©2009

To examine the function of the panel border, and its traditional status, it is useful to

look to earlier alternatives. McCloud (2000:13), when discussing The Bayeux

Tapestry, describes the left to right sequence of events in “deliberate chronological

order” and that while there “are no clear panel borders per se… there are clear

divisions of scene by subject matter.” Were we to remove Morgan’s ‘zapping’ border

we would still be able to identify the division of subject matter, but it is reasonable to

suggest that this would require an element of prior subject knowledge and

understanding. To explore the nature of this prior subject knowledge and

understanding McCloud illustrates how McCloud (2007) distinguishes between

received and perceived knowledge (Figure 3).

33

Fig. 3 - Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics p.49

The border, jagged or otherwise while forming part of the image would independently

not be considered an image, however, it does form a crucial element of the visual

message. In McCloud’s terms we see that the meaning of the border is perceived and

not received information. There are spaces between images themselves, the lack of

image, with specific intended meanings, and they, like text, require decoding. In terms

of Morgan’s work, the panel borders reinforce the separation in order to accommodate

a lack of familiarity with the story on the part of the visitor. These spaces, or lack of

detail, also provide room for the viewer to create the missing information as part of

the additive process, as Figure 4 illustrates.

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Fig. 4 - Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics p.67

As Morgan refers to the border, a stylistic element clearly rooted in the comic book,

as ‘traditional’, we get a sense of the pervasiveness of the comic book and its related

elements. Has the medium of the comic strip now gained significant cultural capital,

in that the subculture has permeated and absorbed into the mainstream?

It is significant to note that these discussions of the comic and its elements as

‘traditional’, are taking place within the museum context and the context of exhibition

development. The museum, being a physical representation of, and receptacle for, the

physical hard and fast signifiers of high culture.

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Fig. 5 Objects and illustrations


In observing the juxtaposition of objects and illustration, as shown in Fig. 5 and in

comparing the juxtaposition of the museum and the comic in their depictions of

Darwin, we may understand the museum and the museum exhibition as the contact

zone for a meeting of high and low culture. It absorbs the palette of the popular

culture comic, and begins to explore the implications of newfound relationship

enabled by post-modernity on these once distant forms of expression.

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3.3 Captured

The Imperial War Museum North’s exhibition, ‘Captured’ focuses on the lives of

Prisoners of War during the Second World War.

Looking at the design brief we see the identified themes for Captured. I have listed

the entirety to provide an opportunity to demonstrate another example of the reductive

and additive process, this time within the museum. The themes have been developed

in order to communicate an intended message. Exhibition Assistant Odile Masia,

describes the stated intention of these themes being “… to emphasise elements of the

experience that would be familiar to all prisoners, and those elements that differed

w
widely.”(Masia, O. 2009, pers. comm., 20 December)

The Themes of Captured

• Experience of capture

• Survival and endurance against adversity

• Truth behind some of the famous legends, inc. The Great Escape and Bridge over

the River Kwai

• ‘Mateship’

• Diet and food

• Entertainment, sport, culture, self-improvement

• Contact with families and the outside world, and the role of the International Red

Cross

• Punishment, brutality and work

• Medical

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• Legacies(Masia, O. 2009, pers. comm., 20 December)

Such use of themes at the point of concept perform a communication reduced to its

essence. Paradoxically the reduction is longer in terms of description than the

intended aim but when viewed as elements of the exhibition selected they can be

understood to form a sum greater than its parts. The marketing literature for this

exhibition presents an illustrated image of soldiers on a battlefield, hands raised in a

position of surrender as a white searchlight breaks the red sky background. The image

is visually striking, a high contrast scene with strong emotional content given the

subject matter of the exhibition. The style of illustration, if not presentation, is

reminiscent of the types of daring boys tales as told by British war comics.

While the image may present a tale of POW’s in the style of a traditional war comic,

the exhibition, from the point of entry takes the visitor in another direction. This

brings to mind the description of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist as graphic

novel in terms of marketing while conflicting with the description of the artist.

On entering the exhibition space the stylings of the comic are not seen to be so

immediately apparent or influential as a combination of photographs, video, movie

poster and objects dominate the entrance.

Further into the exhibition there are numerous places where the photographs, objects

and other content are framed by line art drawings of wooden structure. While this

element is repeated and adapted throughout the exhibition as a visual element it is

certainly not the key feature. Although it is used throughout the exhibition it doesn’t

38

dominate the style or even remain as a constant feature. The exhibition utilises a

number of different media including handwritten accounts, video, audio and this is

reflected in the diverse style of display. The feature of line art illustration in black and

white allows the framework to appear in, and highlight, certain parts of the exhibition

without becoming a theme.

The multisensory approach contributes to the atmosphere with audiovisual

presentations and even the sense of smell playing its part. A searchlight sweeps the

space, the guard tower this is on is rendered in the illustrated style, colourless as

though lifted from an old comic. The illustration of the support struts of the tower

stand on a photograph of POW’s playing cricket. The diverse palette of display, both

in terms of visual style and the range of media utilised suggests a postmodern

approach.

How then does this fit with the linear journey through the exhibition space?

While there isn’t a set narrative to follow through Captured a clear series exists. Areas

are divided into sections such as Capture, POW Life and Repatriation. The sequence

obviously creates its own chronological, and linear, structure. In between are

atmospheric elements such as Camp Smells, a guessing game with the aim of

identifying a number of smells and Disguised - a dressing up game.

The visitor can of course move back through these sections at will and should the

visitor miss the marking on the floor at one juncture it is possible to accidentally reach

the end of the exhibition at an early stage with a wrong turn. However although there

is the freedom to explore there is clearly one intended path through the gallery space.

39

It seems our earlier question has a renewed relevance - When such a clear sequence is

laid out does it become something akin to a subversive act to begin to construct your

own nonlinear narrative?

At one point this is addressed explicitly, and the theme and narrative voice of the

exhibition remains consistent and in character as at one end of an escape tunnel which

is presumably, given its size, intended for children. the sign reads, ‘Don’t go that way,

you will be breaking into the prison camp!’

It is in details such as these that the narrative voice of Captured seems the loudest and

clearest. Although it borrows from the palette of comics it does so to much less of an

extent than Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist. Perhaps as a result the overall

approach it takes feels more thematic and much less pedagogic or didactic.

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3.4 Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure

The exhibition at The British Museum, Manga: Professor Munakata’s British

Museum adventure in Room 3 features scenes of past adventures which introduces

visitors to the world of Professor Munakata. New drawings highlight his most recent

encounters with iconic treasures at the British Museum.

Visitors may also browse Japanese Manga books in a setting which evokes a ‘Manga

coffee shop’, or Manga kissa, in the corner of the room. Not entirely dissimilar to the

coffee table reading section in the corner of the room of Charles Darwin: evolution of

a scientist.

The British Museum website introduces the artist and his creation Professor

Munakata,

‘Hoshino Yukinobu a leading Japanese Manga artist. One of his most popular

characters is Professor Munakata, who investigates history and folklore in his Manga

adventures. Hoshino has been inspired by his engagement with the British Museum

and its collections to create a new Manga in which his popular character Professor

Munakata, a professor of folklore at the fictional Tōa Bunka University, embarks on

adventures in the Museum galleries.’

http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/museum_in_london/london_exhibition_archive/manga.aspx

The press release for this exhibition adds further detail,

‘Hoshino Yukinobu first created Professor Munakata in 1990. Now, every two weeks,

millions of readers in Japan eagerly follow the professor’s latest adventures in the

Manga magazine Big Comic. In October, Hoshino Yukinobu made his first visit to the

British Museum. While here he created three ink drawings showing Professor

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Munakata’s most recent encounters with treasures of the ancient past. Hoshino has

been inspired by his engagement with the British Museum and its collections to create

a new Manga in which his popular character Professor Munakata, a professor of

folklore at the fictional Tōa Bunka University, embarks on adventures in the Museum

galleries.’

http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press_releases/press_releases/2009/manga.asp

x

That the collection inspires a leading Japanese artist, and it is acknowledged in this

way, suggests a mutual relationship and respect between artist and institution. The

status of the artist is clear and that he may draw inspiration from the objects held by

the museum and the museum itself is a reciprocal endorsement.

The inclusion of objects within the museum collection is evident but only in

illustrated form. The objects remain on the galleries, the panels are accompanied by

information letting the visitor know where to find them. Interestingly the reverse is

not true. A visitor may see the illustration of the Sutton Hoo helmet and follow the

information to find the physical object but a visitor to the object is not presented with

information to entice them into the British Museum’s Room 3. This one-way directive

feels like a missed opportunity for reciprocity between the displays and could be

interpreted as an indication of the pecking order of the material being displayed.

While the display of the physical objects is worthy of signposting from Manga:

Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure, the exhibition of illustrated

artefacts does not receive the same courtesy in return.

In order to begin the comparison with Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist I wish

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to explore just how the exhibition is affected by the lack of physical objects and the

presence of the illustrations. The stylised nature of the artwork allows for some

interesting juxtaposition and interplay between Professor Munakata and the objects

themselves. The Rosetta Stone appears but with a crucial and striking difference. Here

we see it as a ‘blank slate’ without any writing. Meanwhile Munakata’s back takes the

shape of the stone and the writing appears here. Presented alongside a samurai helmet

is The Sutton Hoo helmet. Or rather a modified version of The Sutton Hoo helmet, as

it has the shape of the Europe formed by the patina.

By altering the objects in these ways they have been depicted within the panels as

instantly recognisably different to their physical counterparts. Not only this but the

playful alterations demonstrate that they have been embraced by the artist and the

form itself. The transformation from museum object to illustration is not a direct and

literal one but one in which the form imprints its identity, quite literally, on the

objects themselves.

A key decision in the development of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist, as

described by Chrissie Morgan was to move away from the graphic novel style as it

was felt this exaggerated style may undermine the element of reality whereas here we

see this in reverse. The deliberate distancing from the real and the physical.

Manchester Museum’s exhibition seeks to validate the reality of the objects and

perhaps enabled by the fictional protagonist, as opposed to the revered and real

Darwin, The British Museum creates representations of already familiar, even iconic,

objects while disregarding the concern for validity of the real. This treatment of

objects is a key indication of how these two exhibitions explore the same terrain but

move in different directions. While the sequential nature of the wall mounted panels

43

suggests a linear path through, or rather around the perimeter, of the gallery the use

and re-use of elements from the panels create a more postmodern feel. Segments of

panels are recreated on the wall behind the actual artwork, larger than original size,

repetition of elements of the design also enables the style to permeate the gallery to a

deeper degree.

In the same way that Professor Munakata has been displaced from his context and

supplanted within the museum gallery the objects are removed from their physical

context and become signifiers of themselves and objects in general. The drawing of

the Rosetta Stone is clearly not executed in the style of a technical illustration and

rather than serving to portray the object itself the image serves to represent the elusive

nature of the mystery within the stone as Munakata changes shape to accommodate

the text. The museum and collections is reflected within its own exhibition and we see

it is not a direct reflection but rather one which introduces distortions. The

illustrations themselves are also presented with distortions.

Jane Cheng (2009) describes the effect these juxtapositions may have,

“The juxtaposition of hugely enlarged with minutely detailed

asks visitors both to lean in closer and to step back: itself a

motion that reverberates with the action-packed content of the

Manga…”

This repetition does indeed ask for simultaneous and contradicting observations from

the viewer. The scale of the replicated illustrations presents the illustrations at a size

distinctly incongruous with the way we are used to seeing comics, just as the

44

illustrated and altered versions of the collection objects presents them in an unfamiliar

light. Such shifts in perspective enables, or even asks, the viewer to consider the role

of the object, illustrated and ‘real’. At the entrance to the exhibition Munakata, as

with Darwin, stands to greet visitors. Here though Munakata appears with echoed,

enlarged illustrations on the walls behind. The duplication here presents us with a

monochrome Munakata at a larger scale. The repetition reinforces the presence of

Munakata and simultaneously undermines any notion, could there be one, that he is a

real person.

The visitor is reminded that while Munakata interacts with ‘real’ objects they are

visitors in a space dominated by the imaginary.

As Russell (2009) observes, “Being surrounded on five sides by sophisticated graphic

art is like entering the magic world of “the Professor” himself. ”

<http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article6904941.ece>

Given the interactions taking place we would do well to question just who is entering

whose world.

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3.5 Overview & Comparison of Case Studies

Visitors to Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist can take with them a 24-page

leaflet in the style of a Victorian newspaper. In contrast with the visually rich

exhibition there is only one image on the front cover, a reproduction of the panel,

which greets visitors as they approach the entrance to the exhibition. The image

shows Darwin with his quote “I was born a naturalist.”

Inside the broadsheet the timeline of the exhibition is reproduced.

The flyer for the Darwin Festival at The Manchester Museum, while vibrant and

colourful displays none of the illustrations from Charles Darwin: evolution of a

scientist and bears more resemblance to a 19th Century circus poster.

These materials in themselves present an interesting reversal, as from Chrissie’s

explanation of the change in direction we see that information presented to the public

presents the exhibition as ‘graphic novel’ while the intention, in terms of exhibition

development, was to move away from that. Here we see the material made available

to the public as clearly moving away from the graphic novel element and focusing

more on the popular media of the 19th Century.

Although all three exhibitions share a common medium the organising structures

within each is different. Put simply the pathway through Charles Darwin : evolution

of a scientist depends largely on the guidance of the timeline, as shown in Fig.6, and

the utilisation of the comic book’s sequential panels to enable the visitor to view the

exhibition in the intended order. This order is formed by the chronology of Darwin’s

46

life

Fig. 6 Perimeter Timeline of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist


Captured depends less on this type of guidance and it is the unicursal labyrinth,

manifested in the form of doorways and tunnel structures which act to guide the

visitor. Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure takes the form of a

linear path around the perimeter of the gallery though the panels do not need to be

viewed in a particular sequence.

Earlier, in relation to the versatility of comics as a medium, I suggested the scope of

content and subject material to be almost endless. In exploring the ways in which this

potential has been harnessed by comics in a commercial setting I intend to identify

ways in which the museum may also maximise potential audience.

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Duncan & Smith (2006) state that “the roots of comics are firmly entrenched in

commercialism” (p.106), and it is here, in the diverse marketing techniques and

approaches of the comic, if not the economics, that the museum may wish to take

heed.

One particular way of maximizing the potential of a property within a comic seems

something akin to market saturation. What could be seen as synchronicity harnessed

by major comics publishers provides many examples of reinterpretation resulting in

expansion of a brand. To illustrate this we may take the example of a popular

character with several different continuities and simultaneous incarnations to reach all

possible markets.

In recent years taking the example of Marvel’s Spider-Man alongside the regularly

published titles there has also been a Japanese Manga style reworking of the Spider-

man story, an Indian Spider-man, a pre-teen version, a teen version, Spider-man of the

year 2099, Spider-man of the year 1608 and Spider-man as a senior citizen. All of

these existing in separate continuities at one time and aimed at different markets, or

perhaps more charitably, audiences. Cameos, hybrids and cross-overs of popular

characters are commonplace between other titles and even other publishers in order to

generate and reignite interest. Where continuity was once sacrosanct to the diehard

comics enthusiast contradictions now mean little. The publishers DC Comics coined

the ‘Multiverse’. A continuity construct that meant that all simultaneous realities were

co-existing and not conflicting, thus enabling the successful mining of multiple

markets.

How could this strategy be applied to the modern museum? Simply put, by

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supplementing the curatorial voice with multiple voices, especially the voices of

visitors.

Viewed in this light we can see that this is already taking place. The same artefact

interpreted from a number of visitor and community perspectives opens a world of

possibilities to the museum and provides the visitor with fresh and exciting

representations of the same object.

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• 4. Words and Picture

4.1 Travelling Through Space as Time

The aim of this chapter is to explore the relationship between space and time and how

these are presented, represented and utilised in comics and museum exhibitions. How

the use of physical space can signify and represent time and how this occurs in similar

and different ways within the comic and the museum context.

In their own ways, and for their own separate reasons, museums and comics employ

sets of traditions and devices to guide the reader through space and time. As we will

see, it is time that is often represented in a physical sense in order to clearly direct the

attention of a reader in a linear manner. Berger (2009) discusses Magritte, describing

his acceptance and use of a ‘certain language of painting’ (p.162). He describes this

language as being over 500 years old, where the language itself sits within an older

visual communication system, the visual vocabulary constantly developing birthing

languages and creating new techniques of representation. On Magritte’s painting

Berger says, ‘He assumes that the truth is to be found in appearances which are

therefore worth preserving by being represented. It assumes continuity in time as also

in space.’ While we will look at this manner of continuity in time, it is another related

function of the visual language that is of interest to this discussion, namely the way in

which time can be transformed into space. As with the museum, space in comics can

become, or at least be represented as, time. The content is arranged and displayed in

such a way that this structuring of content forms an element of the message that is

crucial to understanding the intended message.

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Before leaving Magritte we must acknowledge perhaps one of the most famous

juxtapositions of image and text, his painting of a smoker’s pipe. Beneath the pipe

Magritte wrote ‘Ceci n’est pas un pipe.’ The artwork is not part of a sequence to

denote the passage of time, the two elements may be ‘read’ in any order and so the

relationship between text and image is not used here to create a scene to be read and

understood but rather to create a paradox with the juxtaposition. As Berger (2009)

states, ‘He made two languages (the visual and the verbal) cancel one another out.

(p.163)

McCloud (2000) defines the medium of comics as “Juxtaposed pictorial and other

images in deliberate sequence” (p.8) and while it may be possible to denote the

passage of time without sequence it is this aspect of comics that is of interest to our

discussion of museums. We will return to this notion in order to explore functions of

devices such as panel borders and divisions of scene, but first I wish to explore

another of McCloud’s observations, that regarding sequencing which applies equally

to museums and comics. Taking the example of Max Ernst’s ‘Collage novel’, A Week

of Kindness, McCloud (2000) notes that, “… despite the lack of a conventional story

there is no mistaking the central role which sequence plays in the work. Ernst doesn’t

want you to browse the thing, he wants you to read it.” (p.19)

Utilising the sequence of panels within the gallery space, The Manchester Museum

invites the visitor to read, not browse. The succession of panels represents the passing

of time, forcing the visitor to follow a prescribed path through this space and therefore

in the direction of the passage of time. It is this manifestation of time and space that

precisely commands the viewer in terms of their journey through the intended

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narrative. We live in a time where visitors are familiar with the internet and world

wide web. Where seemingly endless and randomly related hyperlinks h allow the

reader countless multiple pathways through information. In contrast the comic, and

the museum exhibition based on comics, take the reader by the hand down a narrow

path of one direction.

Mason (2006:26) considers in connection with the various capacities to define a route

through the space of the exhibition we can extend it to structure and narrative in order

to encompass the comic and the way in which it operates within the exhibition.

Taking the examples listed, (material, pedagogic, aesthetic) as a starting point we can

begin to see the deceptive duality at work with the pedagogic sequential nature of the

comic. The cumulative experience of reading the comic depends on an unquestioning

following of the particular structure. Without this concession the reader is not able to

read. Browsing could be seen as unpreventable, particularly when seen from the point

of view of Barthes when discussing ‘The Birth of The Reader’. As Barthes (1997)

states, ‘…we know that to give writing its future, it is necessary to overthrow the

myth: the birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the Author.’ (p.148).

This exploration of post-modern theory announcing the ‘Death of The Author’

enables The Reader to take control of the interpretation of text. The creation wrests

control of the authority of interpretation from the creator and allows each visitor to

form their own personal frameworks by which they may interpret the material. The

reading is subjective and the control of this understanding lies with each visitor on an

individual basis. When such a clear sequence is laid out however, dead author or not,

does it become something akin to a subversive act to begin to construct your own

nonlinear narrative?

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As discussed earlier, the stylistic devices of the comic are not only there to constrain

and guide but also to perform a function. That of the comic being, in its broadest

sense, to entertain. The structure of the narrative and the fact that, again in general

terms, it is unlinear serves to build a sequence of plot points and scenes of artistic and

dramatic impact. The one directional path through the story enables the authors to

produce a story within an accepted format that is understood and proven to retain and

generate tension and drama, crucial in holding the attention of the reader and ensuring

the success of a comic.

Can the primary intention of the museum be said to entertain? While this may be an

element of the museum’s modern role and appreciated as being crucial to

engagement, it is important to note that the museum, as Bennett (2006) notes, has its

roots in, “the monastic studium” (p.267) and as such it must be balanced with

education and the need to inform. Bennett continues to describe how the museum,

“was seen as a solitary and contemplative space sequestered from the noise of the

world.” (p.267) There are many who still see the museum in this way but there are

also many who strongly disagree, as the present day museum may also be a space for

the facilitation of discussion and community. The role of the museum is developing, it

is now an accumulation and reaction to the numerous roles it has previously held.

This changing function necessitates a shift in perspective when examining the role of

structure. In the museum context the use of narrative may still be essential to generate

tension, suspense and drama in order to encourage the visitor to engage, but it is no

longer employed with the sole aim of entertainment. For this reason, if none other, the

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unyielding structure of the sequential image may be seen in a new – or rather seen

anew in a traditional, directive, light.

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4.2 Darwin, Civic Seeing and Linear Narrative

In the case study of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist the series of sequential

images sit within a wider context, surrounded as they are with objects of material

culture connected to Darwin’s life. Bennett (2000:81) discusses the ways in which

Great Exhibitions (international expositions) served to demonstrate a stratigraphy, a

sequence of progress. In the museum context the sequential imagery of the comic

becomes a progressive sequence, layers of time forming the unilinear narrative

structure. This stratigraphy is ideally suited to the discussion of material at hand.

Evidence of progress can easily be divided clearly and therefore demonstrated in such

a manner. What better subject to place within a hierarchy of progress than the

embodiment of evolution himself, Charles Darwin? To view Darwin as symbol for

evolution and his own theories, (Chapter3.2) leads us to further interesting parallels

between comics and museums. Let us focus initially on comics and their use of

synechdoche or metonymy. Each two sequential static frames of a comic also

represent two separate points in time and all that passes in between we can easily see

the reduction and expansion at work.

Duncan & Smith (2009:133) propose that, ‘The most prevalent reductive device in

comics is synecdoche’. While it could be argued that illustration itself is a more

prevalent reductive device, we must examine the use of synecdoche in comics and in

relation to Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist.

Darwin as icon or symbol, here as elsewhere, functions as synecdoche for evolution

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itself. The bearded face of Darwin may represent a visual shorthand for his theory and

the impact it has had, the study of evolution. Interestingly enough, The Manchester

Museum bravely aims with this exhibition to address this figurehead and deconstruct

the sequence of events and indeed the life that led to this theory. The familiar is

exactly that which is being rejected, as the intention of the exhibition is to get away

from ‘the beard’. The depiction of Darwin with a beard is used sparingly within the

exhibition, though interestingly the large illustration that precedes the entrance to the

gallery, as Figure 7 illustrates, does indeed present the familiar, bearded face of

Darwin.

Fig. 7 – Entrance to Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist.

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Here we may identify Darwin’s beard as a route to the synechdoche, as this could be

interpreted as a signifier of the old. It is Darwin as old man operating as synechdoche

as it is this presentation of a ‘part’ of his life, which has come to represent the whole.

Furthermore, the beard itself represents masculinity and as the beard in question is

white, it cannot be ignored that with a connection to these aspects amongst others, the

beard represents and bears connotations of the old white male scholar of yesteryear.

Darwin, the superhero of science is being ushered into the phone booth to remove his

cape. And most importantly beard. It is the Clark Kent aspect of Darwin’s identity

that is to be displayed here as the exhibition attempts to reveal his secret identity. The

mild mannered Darwin before he unlocked the mystery of evolution using only the

power of his mind. In a sense we are dealing with a familiar trope of the superhero

genre, the origin story. Here though we are seeing it in reverse, delving deeper into

the nature of discovery.

Key moments represent the whole of Darwin's life reduced to a series of key moments

to communicate the persistence involved. The bearded Darwin has come to represent

and denote evolution as much as, if not more than, the image of progression of ape to

human. The problem, at least in terms of Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist at

least is that he also represents the old, the Victorian era. The aim of the exhibition

could therefore be understood as aiming to strip away the archaic elements of the

world, that of the familiar aged white male scholar of Victorian times. In doing so we

recognise and highlight the youth, dynamism and dogged persistence within his

sustained approach to his theory. Thinking of Darwin himself in this new light

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enables us to see another possible reason for the use of the comic book in this display,

as this transformation from old to young is assisted by the use of a medium, accepted

by the traditional but one which is generally not associated with the dusty world of the

Victorian scholar.

Though it is not our concern and we hardly have the scope to explore the issue here it

is interesting to wonder to what extent the familiar needs to be addressed and

challenged as after all there is presumably good reason why ‘the beard’ gained it’s

weight and significance? While this intention may be unconventional in terms of

Darwin how does the approach compare?

Bennett (2000:81) describes the term ‘museum’ to be understood as a way of referring

to wide varieties of activity relating to the practices of valuation, collection and

display of cultures and histories. Following this train of thought we can identify the

use of the palette of the world of comics, the most noticeable here being that of the

sequential image, to shed new light onto a recognised patriarch of the world of

science and learning. In short, this reinterpretation is intended to rejuvenate an icon.

How then do we see the term when the museum reverts to a unilinear Victorian

approach? Of course this is where we must look at the other aspect of the sequential

art of the comic book. As pedagogic unidirectional narrative, this unicursal pictorial

labyrinth forms a deceptively formidable inflexible structure.

Is the adoption of this visual technique in effect a return to somewhat utilitarian

values and methods, a cultural instrumentalism bolstered by the uncompromising

timeline, to argue a single point of progression and lead the reader away from the

browsing lifestyle which may ‘corrupt’ their understanding? It would seem at the very

58

least that the less familiar, even revolutionary media can in terms of its function, be

quite traditional.

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4.3 The Graphic Novel as Stylistic Template

For the purpose of comparison we may see that while Captured employs a number of

comic book devices the comic book is far less influential than in the exhibitions of

Darwin and British Museum.

As Fig. 8 illustrates, the visitor is met at the entrance of both of these exhibitions by

an image of the central character.

Fig. 8 - Munakata & Darwin as gatekeepers.

Images Courtesy of The Manchester Museum ©2009 & The British Museum ©2009

The visitor can be in no doubt that regardless of the actual authors of these artworks

these gatekeepers to the exhibition spaces celebrate the central characters and convey

their integral nature to the displays.

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Barthes (1977) asserts that,

‘The Author, when believed in, is always conceived of as the past of his own

book: book and author stand automatically on a single line divided into a before

and an after.’ (p.145)

We may immediately recognise that Darwin and his works stand ‘automatically on a

single line’ the before and after. Darwin is not the author of the exhibition of course

yet it is he who performs the central role in the exploration and depiction of his own

life. We see Darwin mediated and represented by a team of contributors and the

visitor supplanting the author constructs their own narrative,

‘We know now that a text is not a line of words releasing a single 'theological'

meaning (the 'message' of the Author–God) but a multi-dimensional space in which a

variety of writings, none of them original, blend and clash. The text is a tissue of

quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture.’

Barthes (1977: 146)

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• 5. Conclusion

Taking the discussion Mason (2006:26) considers in connection with the various

capacities to define a route through the space of the exhibition it would seem that

from the examples listed, (material, pedagogic and aesthetic) we can see the deceptive

duality at work with the pedagogic sequential nature of the comic.

While to many the medium of comic books may suggest the free thinking world of

imagination and children, the teaching of the visitor takes place in a sense all the more

due to the inflexible sequencing of illustrations. The medium may now be understood

to be part of the mainstream and while it also retains elements of subculture it is here

seen as a pedagogic unilinear tool for the traditional.

Traditional as opposed to postmodern in the sense of narrative in that while the

atmosphere may evoke the books, visual and stylistic devices, shades and tones of

childhood we see it here as evidence and proponent of a singular direction with which

to traverse the gallery space and the subjects within.

Here we see that although Barthes (1977: 142) famously pronounced the Author dead,

just as tombstones carry dates with which to form a chronology, even memorials for

the dead may provide a structure. If Author–God does not exist it is necessary for

reader to invent him. In their own likeness. From Barthes perspective we may see that

regardless of the authors intention it is the reader governs their own interpretation of a

text. Rejecting the idea that the author controls the meaning of a text. As Mason

(2006:27) states in relation to this thinking it is as result of the ‘birth of the reader’,

and the consequential necessary ‘death of the author’, that enables additional

62

understanding to the visitors’ construction of their own narrative. While this can

present liberation on the part of the visitor, or reader it also may threaten to

undermine the authority of the author. Or indeed curator. As has been discussed the

impact of practical limitations, such as time and funding, must also be considered

when addressing the finished text.

To view the finished text in isolation from these elements may jaundice the view and

misrepresent the extent to which freedom of interpretation, or lack of, on the part of

the reader was intended. While it may be argued that the reader is free to construct

their own meaning from the text within the exhibition it is the direction the reader will

take, or be taken in, that is of interest here. As with other texts there is a sequence to

the narrative. Familiarity is required to enable the reader to be aware of the sequence

in order that it can be followed. This as we have acknowledged is no more true for the

comic book than for any novel composed purely of text but and here I would stress

that it is this less overt sequencing that enables the “gentle leading” which Chrissie

Morgan describes.

The gallery may of course be browsed, and given the precedents set by so many other

galleries and exhibitions, the likelihood is that the visitor will browse the space here.

To do so is not explicitly forbidden however the visitor has many opportunities to

recognise the subtleties of direction, the “gentle leading”, before they have taken the

‘wrong’ direction. The timeline around the perimeter wall of the exhibition echo and

reinforce the sequential path of comic panels. This chronological device subtly

informs the visitor of the intended, or correct, path of the exhibition.

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We may see the treatment of illustration within Manga: Professor Munakata’s British

Museum adventure as playful, embracing the objects and transforming them as they

are mediated within the comic form and as many of the panels operate independently

to others initially the structure may also seem somewhat ludic. On reflection though

we see, as Figure 9 illustrates, that with the exception of the oversize reproduced

illustrations on the wall and floor, the path through this gallery is a straightforward

left to right reading around the perimeter of the space.

Fig. 9 – Entrance to Manga: Professor Munakata’s British Museum adventure

Image Courtesy of The British Museum ©2009

Interestingly left to right is not the direction of the panels in Japanese Manga, which

read from top to bottom and from right to left, as with the traditional pattern of the

written Japanese language. Despite the timeline along the perimeter the layout of

Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist with individual self-contained panels of key

64

scenes provides more scope for the reader to construct their own path.

The narrative structure itself by nature of being sequential is, in conjunction with the

subject matter here inevitably pedagogic and didactic, that is to say in the broader

sense. In the traditional view of the museum the use of comics as exhibition technique

could be seen as experimental. Comics despite many links to mainstream popular

culture may still be viewed as, and indeed retain their links to, elements of subculture.

Ironically we see that this creative medium, connected for many with childhood,

imagination and flights of fancy is actually a rigidly structured set of devices that

ensures the reader, once initiated, follows a single path in a prescribed manner.

The format of comics, which could be viewed as unconventional, actually perform a

number of traditional functions and reinforces the linear approach to narrative. Is the

medium of the subculture so hierarchical? In the same way that the dynamic

superhero can be seen to reinforce the status quo the, often vibrant, comic book can

serve to reinforce the Victorian notion of exhibition, dictating a reading as opposed to

encouraging browsing or exploration. Communication takes place far more quickly

with the use of imagery than by text alone and it seems Pitt Rivers would approve of

the medium that allows the runners to read. With the structure of comics linear

narrative setting the direction the reader may not even choose which way to run, again

we can imagine this would meet with Pitt Rivers approval.

The reductive nature of the form requires understanding on the part of the reader in

order that the additive stage of the process may occur and the meanings and directions

be decoded and unpacked. To connect with the broadest audience the more

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sophisticated elements and developments within the form may be neglected so as not

to distance the majority with a more complex set of messages for a niche appeal.

The additive nature of reading is also relevant in the instance of Darwin as

synecdoche for evolution itself. His bearded figure may serve as visual shorthand for

On The Origin of The Species and much more. It is the recognition on the part of the

reader that allows for this expansion of meaning, the additive part of the process.

Such is the familiarity of the image of Darwin.

Interesting then, that this is the image which Charles Darwin: evolution of a scientist

seeks to gain distance from. The dismantling of this synecdoche is surely the aim of

the wish, as voiced by designer Morgan and curator McGhie to get away from ‘the

beard’

The discrepancy between the presentation of the exhibition as being marketed as a

‘graphic novel’ style when the decision was taken to follow a more illustration based

direction raises interesting issues. Can we therefore assume that it is the appeal of the

comic book leanings and the populist mainstream superhero tropes associated with the

term ‘graphic novel’ which results in this duality? After all the decision to take a less

sensational direction is one which is intended to better communicate the authenticity,

humanity and reality of Darwin’s life. In order to attract visitors into the exhibition a

sensational approach would surely be most effective in terms of reaching a maximum

potential audience. While the comic as a medium may benefit from further increase in

cultural validity and literate acceptability, Museums in return could benefit from

improved communication via the vocabulary of comics in the attempt to reach

different audiences and to generate the possibility for growth in audience.

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