2. The Cognitive Revolution
19th Century focus on the mind
Introspection
Behaviorist focus on overt responses
arguments regarding incomplete picture of
human functioning
Empirical study of cognition – 1956
conference
Simon and Newell – problem solving
Chomsky – new model of language
Miller – memory
3. Language: Turning Thoughts into Words
Properties of Language
Symbolic
Semantic
Generative
Structured
4. The Hierarchical Structure of Language
Phonemes = smallest speech units
100 possible, English – about 40
Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning
50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes
Semantics = meaning of words and word
combinations
Objects and actions to which words refer
Syntax = a system of rules for arranging
words into sentences
Different rules for different languages
5. Language Development: Milestones
Initial vocalizations similar across languages
Crying, cooing, babbling
6 months – babbling sounds begin to
resemble surrounding language
Twin Talk
1 year – first word
similar cross-culturally – words for parents
receptive vs. expressive language
7. Language Development:
Milestones Continued
18-24 months – vocabulary spurt
fast mapping
over and underextensions
Overextension = Child calls all things round “ball”
Underextension = Child uses word “puppy” only in
reference to their family pet, fails to recognize other
puppies
End of second year – combine words
Telegraphic speech = “Me have now!”
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) = # of
morphemes
End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past
tense
8. Bilingualism:
Learning More Than One Language
Research findings:
Smaller vocabularies in one language,
combined vocabularies average
Higher scores for middle-class bilingual
subjects on cognitive flexibility, analytical
reasoning, selective attention, and
metalinguistic awareness
Slight disadvantage in terms of language
processing speed
2nd languages more easily acquired early in
life
Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition
10. B.F. Skinner v. Noam Chomsky
Attempts to explain language development have sparked a spirited intellectual controversy. At the heart of this controversy is the nature-nurture debate.
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner believed that we can explain how babies acquire language entirely with principles of learning, such as the association of
objects with the sounds of words, the imitation of language modeled by others, and the reinforcement of correct use of words and syntax by parents and
teachers. Linguist Noam Chomsky, who favors the nature position, believes that much of our language capacity is inborn. According to this perspective,
just as "learning" to walk is programmed according to a timetable of biological maturation, so children are prewired to begin to babble and talk.
In this exercise, review each of the following examples of language use by children and decide whether it best supports
the position of B. F. Skinner or Noam Chomsky.
1.While Marie and her mother are looking at a book together, Marie's mother shows her a
picture of an animal and says "cow." Marie says "cow," and her mother praises her for her
correct utterance. Two pages later, Marie spontaneously points to a picture and correctly
identifies it as a cow.
2. When his day care teacher asks 2-year-old Jack what he did last Saturday, he responds
with "We goed to the zoo." His teacher smiles, marveling at the fact that all children Jack's
age make this type of grammatical error.
3. Nicole, who is deaf and was not exposed to sign language until age 3, lacks the manual
linguistic skills of deaf children born to deaf-signing parents.
4. Twelve-year-old Malcolm, who emigrated to the United States at age 4, understands
English grammar much better than 20-year-old Maya, who was first exposed to English at
age 12.
11. Can Animals Develop Language?
Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees
Vocal apparatus issue
American Sign Language
Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)
Chimpanzee - Washoe
160 word vocabulary
Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi
Symbols
Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests
12. Theories of Language Acquisition
Behaviorist
Skinner (Verbal Behavior 1957)
learning of specific verbal responses
Nativist
Chomsky
learning the rules of language
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Interactionist
Cognitive, social communication, and
emergentist theories
13. Perspective Taking: Do Animals Have Language?
Few controversies have so divided the scientific community as has the
controversy about the apes’ capacity for language. Although many
scientists have made serious attempts at rearing apes in language-rich
environments, the results have not overwhelmingly demonstrated that apes
can use language as human beings us it.
At the heart of the argument are the criteria we use to determine true
capacity for language. Generally, scientists specializing in the study of
language impose the following criteria for the debate:
•Is the language symbolic: Can it be used to represent absent objects?
•Does the language have systematic syntax, or word order?
•Can the language be used in a creative or productive manner?
15. Problem Solving: Types of Problems
Greeno (1978) – three basic classes
Problems of inducing structure
Series completion and analogy problems
Problems of arrangement
String problem and Anagrams
Often solved through insight
Problems of transformation
Hobbits and orcs problem
Water jar problem
16. Simple Word Problems
In the Thompson family there are five
brothers and each brother has one sister. If
you count Mrs. Thompson, how many
females are in the Thompson family?
Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka
have unlisted phone numbers. You select
200 names at random from the Topeka
phone book. How many of these people can
be expected to have unlisted phone
numbers?
17. Figure 8.6 Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving
21. Mental Set
“Insanity is doing the same thing over and over
and expecting different results”
– Einstein
The first four require the same strategy
(B-A-2C)
The 5th is much simpler (A-C), however people
get stuck here
22. Without lifting your
pencil from the
paper, draw no
more than 4
straight lines that
will cross through
all nine dots.
-no retracing lines
23. Unnecessary Constraints
•Most people will not draw
lines outside the imaginary
boundary that surrounds
the dots
•That constraint is imposed
by the problem solver, not
the prompt.
•People also feel compelled
to draw 4 lines, but that’s
not necessary
26. Effective Problem Solving
Barriers to effective problem solving:
Irrelevant Information
Functional Fixedness
Mental Set
Unnecessary Constraints
27. Word Problems
Susan gets in her car in Boston and drives
toward New York City, averaging 50 mph.
Twenty minutes later, Ellen gets in her car in
New York City driving towards Boston,
averaging 60 miles per hour. Both women
take the same route, which extends a total
of 220 miles between the 2 cities. Which car
is nearer to Boston when they meet?
29. Approaches to Problem Solving
Algorithms
Systematic trial-and-error
Guaranteed solution
Heuristics
Shortcuts
No guaranteed solution
Forming subgoals
Working backward
Searching for analogies
Changing the representation of a problem
31. Culture, Cognitive Style,
and Problem Solving
Field dependence – relying on external frames
of reference
Field independence – relying on internal
frames of reference
Western cultures inspire field independence
Cultural influence based in ecological demands
Holistic vs. analytic cognitive styles
32. Decision Making:
Evaluating Alternatives and Making Choices
Simon (1957) – theory of bounded
rationality
Making Choices
Additive strategies
Elimination by aspects
Risky decision making
Expected value
Subjective utility
Subjective probability
34. Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
The availability heuristic
Explains why you are afraid of being attacked by a
shark, but you shouldn’t be.
The representativeness heuristic
Judging a book by it’s cover
Use your representative heuristic
to make assumptions about this guy
35. Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About
Decisions
The gambler’s fallacy
Assuming something will happen soon because it’s
“due”
Overestimating the improbable
More likely to die in an airplane or car?
Confirmation bias
Seeking information to confirm what you already
believe
The overconfidence effect
98% confidence intervals only right 60% of the time
Framing
10 people are drowning, you can either save 5 of