Kant's deontological ethics argues that morality is derived from duty rather than consequences. For Kant, the only intrinsically good thing is having a good will that does one's duty. He proposes the categorical imperative - only act based on principles that could become universal laws. This means treating people as ends in themselves, never merely as means. Kant believes rational beings have intrinsic worth and morality requires upholding absolute moral rules and duties regardless of outcomes.

1. Deontological Ethics

2. Two Approaches to Ethics Most philosophers argue that there are two systems for determining what is right or good. The ways in which ´right´or ´good´affect a course of action is the primary difference between two of the most common ethical systems.

4. Consider the following pictures.....

8. Watch – Unthinkable (last 25 mins)

9. Think it through A politician has to make a decision about a ´terrorist´who is in police custody. The ´terrorist´ is suspected of having information that could result in the death of a large number of innocent people, but he refuses to talk. The police argue that the only way they will get the ´terrorist´to reveal his information is to torture him. The politician argues that torture is always wrong, no matter what the consequences. Consider which viewpoint is teleological and which viewpoint is deontological. What would you decide and what reasons would you give to support your decision?

10. Kantian Deontological Ethics ´two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing wonder and awe....the starry heavens above and the moral law within´ Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason 1788.

13. Before discussing Kant ’ s moral theories it is important to note his beliefs about the difference between human nature and animal nature. He believed animals were dominated by instinct and desire. Animal behaviour is shaped by these compulsions.

14. They eat

16. They fight

18. They have sex

20. And when its all over they sleep

22. Of course human beings are no different to animals and Kant believed we shared their instincts and desires

23. We eat

25. Fight

27. Have sex

29. And when its all over we sleep

31. However what separates humans from animals is our ability to REASON. It is this faculty that enables us to act freely and against our instincts and desires if we so choose. It is also the reason why we are superior to the rest of the animal kingdom.

34. To be able to question, intellectualize, ponder, critically evaluate and philosophize

36. Something animals cannot do

37. Well most....

38. Lets start by taking a look at Kant ’ s theory of the Categorical Imperative.

41. Think about it. A friend who is appearing on a television quiz show asks you to sit in the audience and cough at particular key moments during the multiple choice questions to help him win the top prize of a million pounds. He promises to split his winnings with you. Before deciding what to do, ask yourself what rule you would be following if you were to sit in the audience and help your friend. Then ask yourself if you would be willing for that rule to be followed by everyone all the time and in all places. If that ´rule´can be universalized, should you do it? If it cannot, then should you refrain from doing it?

42. So only those actions that conform to rules that could be adopted by all people at all times are moral.

46. Think about this in relation to the man on the quiz show asking his friend to sit in the audience and cough when the correct answer has been presented.

47. Or perhaps this far more serious situation

48. Kant argued that human beings occupy a special place in creation and have an ´intrinsic worth´ that makes humankind ´valuable above all price´. Other animals, by contrast have value only in so much as they serve human purposes. According to Kant humans can use animals in any way they please. We do not even have a direct duty to refrain from torturing them – although Kant thought it wrong, especially as it was far more likely that ´he who is cruel to animals becomes hard also in his dealings with men´.

49. So what would Kant think about this

50. Or this

51. Human beings on the other hand, could never be treated or used as a means to an end.

52. Human being are to treated with dignity. Kant considered human beings ´Holy´.

53. ´Duty for the sake of duty´. For Kant there was only one ´intrinsically good thing´ and that is a ´good will´. To have a good will is to do ones duty. Kant thought that morality rarely had anything to do with happiness and is all to do with DUTY. He argued that whenever people make decisions and actions that benefit themselves at the expense of other people then they are acting selfishly and therefore immorally. Even if people appear to be acting unselfishly and honestly they can still be acting immorally if their actions are not based on duty and a good will. Kant gave the following example.

54. Suppose a shopkeeper sold his goods at a very reasonable price and gained a good reputation with his customers as being honest and fair which led to his financial success based on customer relations. Kant argues the shopkeeper is acting immorally if his intention to sell his goods at a low price is a business strategy that guarantees him prosperity due to a large number of customers choosing to buy at his shop. Kant argues an honest approach to low price goods should be done from a good-will without any regard for business prosperity. It is the shop keepers duty to trade with honesty and integrity because people are not to be treated as a means to an end.

55. There is no answer to the question ´Why should I do my duty?´ except ´ because it is your duty´. If there was an answer to the question it would represent a reason and would make the imperative hypothetical and not categorical. Kant stated ´duty should be done for the sake of duty and duty alone´. It is here we can see the importance of a good-will. Even when reason enables us to know what categorical imperatives we have a duty to follow it is not always easy to act on ones duty when the consequences could be disastrous to us or other people. A good-will is neccesary in order for us to act dutifully. Consider Faramir´s obedience to duty in Return of the King.

58. The Kingdom of ends Kant argues that is never right to treat people as a mere means to an end. We are always ends in ourselves. For Kant, human reason is the key and by making laws for ourselves based on reason alone we become ´law abiding members of a kindom of ends´- a community in which the laws adopted by all the individuals will be in harmony. Kants ideas can be compared to Jesus’ ethical teachings consider Jesus’ teaching of ´ do unto others as you would wish them do to you ´. It is very similar to Kants idea of only acting on the maxims that you would want to become a universal law. Both value the ultimate dignity and worth of all people irrespective of class, colour, race, age or gender.

59. Rights Kant´s theories have helped us to shape our legal system and our sense of moral law. Certain political conclusions follow from Kant´s ethical theories. Kantian ethics require individual liberty, since each memeber of society should be as free as possible to choose for himself or herself. Each member of a community, too, should consider himself or herself a member of the moral community – a community shared by others with equal moral rights and equal moral responsibilities. Kant focussed on the individuals right to choose for himself or herself. What distinguishes human beings from other animals or other objects is their dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with their lives, and humans have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected. People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways they do not freely choose. Of course, many different but related rights exist besides the basic one; for example the right to truth, the right to privacy, right to not be injured.

60. God: The Moral Governor In the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) Kant argues that since human reason is limited, it is not capable of discovering God by reason alone for God is infinite and transcends all things. He rejected, therefore the traditional arguments for Gods existence eg The ontological, cosmological and design arguments. He argued that God can be discovered by observing how obligation dominates all our lives. For example, I ought to be good to my pets, I should practice the piano. This sense of ought, should, must is universal (we all do it) and since we do not invent it (or often want it) it must come from another source – God. The supreme moral governor which speaks through our conscience. Kant also postulates the idea of God in order to guarantee justice to all the people who have dutifully carried out their actions in a morally virtuous way, true to themselves and to their fellow human beings. But Kant also acknowledged that a lot of people lived selfish, greedy and immoral lifestyles and yet still seem to flourish. Therefore Kant postulates Gods existence in order to bring about justice to all in the next life. Gods existence although not proved is necessary in order for Kants ethical theory to be sound.