2. Presentation Outline: Part One
Background: the problem of neonatal mortality
WHO “Essential Interventions” for Mothers
Tetanus Toxoid Immunization
Iron and Folate supplementation
Treatment of infections: especially Malaria, Syphilis
WHO “Essential Interventions” for Newborns
Essential care for all newborns
Cleanliness
Thermal protection
Early and exclusive breast-feeding
Eye Care
Immunization
3. Presentation Outline: Part Two
Essential care for sick newborns:
Care of low birth weight babies
Management of newborn illnesses
Neonatal Resuscitation*
Review Questions
4. Background: Neonatal Mortality
Neonatal mortality: death < 28 days after birth
40% of all child deaths (<5 yo) are neonatal!
Highest rates in sub-Saharan Africa
Africa: > 1 million neonatal deaths every year
38% die of infections
Most are low birthweight (LBW) & many preterm
Liberia: very high rate – 6.6% die in first month
5. Causes of Neonatal Death
(WHO 2001)
Birth Asphyxia
31%
Complications of
Prematurity
25%
Congenital
Anomalies
11%
Infections
33%
6. Background: Neonatal Mortality
325,000 deaths from sepsis & pneumonia in Africa .
Simple preventive practices can save most!
Existing interventions can prevent 35-55%
neonatal deaths worldwide
These interventions include:
Treating pregnant women
for example, tetanus toxoid administration
Treating newborns
Bellagio, Lancet Survival Series
7. WHO Essential Interventions
This presentation will review the principles
behind the “essential interventions” identified
by the WHO as having the greatest potential to
reduce newbown mortality:
Interventions for Mothers
Interventions for Newborns
8. Essential Antenatal Care for Pregnant
Women
Tetanus Toxoid Immunization
Iron and Folate supplementation
Treatment of infections: especially Malaria, Syphilis
9. Tetanus
Caused by Clostridium tetani
G+, anaerobic bacterium sensitive to heat & oxygen
Spores are very resilient and found in soil & animals
GI tract of horses, sheep, cattle, dogs, cats, chickens, others.
Spore inoculation occurs through dirty wounds.
Once inside, spores germinate and produce tetanospasmin
A very potent neurotoxin
Tetanospasmin dissminates in lymph and blood to all nerves
Toxin blocks neurotransmitter release and causes unopposed muscle
contraction and painful muscle spasms
10.
11. Tetanus
The shortest peripheral nerves are affected first
facial distortion
back and neck stiffness
Generalizes in a descending fashion
Seizures may occur
Autonomic nervous system may also be affected
12. Tetanus cases reported worldwide (1990-2004). Ranging
from strongly prevalent (in dark red) to very few cases (in
light yellow) (gray, no data).
13. Tetanus
Tetanus kills an estimated 70,000 newborns in Africa
each year
six percent of all neonatal deaths
It is very hard to treat neonatal tetanus!!
Preventing the disease by immunizing mothers is critical!
14. Tetanus
Tetanus can be prevented through immunization with
tetanus-toxoid (TT) -containing vaccines
Mothers should receive at least 2 TT vaccines during
pregnancy!!
This protects the mother and - through a transfer of
tetanus antibodies to the fetus - her baby
15. Iron and Folate Supplementation
Iron deficiency anemia affects almost half of all women
Maternal anemia contributes significantly to maternal mortality
and causes an estimated 10,000 deaths per year
Newborns of mothers with anemia are more likely to have low
birth weight, be born too early, or die shortly after birth
Also at greater risk for cognitive impairment
Folate supplements before and around conception can reduce
the occurrence of neural tube defects in newborns
17. Treatment of Maternal Malaria:
Malarial infection causes 400,000 cases of severe maternal
anemia yearly
And responsible for 75,000-200,000 infant deaths annually
Effects on fetus:
fetal loss
premature delivery
intrauterine growth retardation
low birth-weight infant
18. Treatment of Maternal Malaria
In high malaria areas, women have some immunity that wanes during
pregnancy
Malaria infection results in severe maternal anemia and delivery of low birth-
weight infants
In low malaria transmission areas, women have not developed immunity
Malaria infection results in severe malaria disease, maternal anemia, premature
delivery, or fetal loss
Malaria is a major factor in low birth weight babies and amenable to
intervention!
20. WHO guidelines for the treatment of
Malaria in pregnancy
Intermittent Preventive Treatment
All pregnant women in areas of stable malaria transmission should receive at least 2 doses of
IPT after quickening
The World Health Organization recommends a schedule of 4 antenatal clinic visits, with 3
visits after quickening
The delivery of IPT with each scheduled visit after quickening will assure that a high
proportion of women receive at least 2 doses
The most effective drug for IPT is sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) because of its safety for
use during pregnancy, effectiveness in reproductive-age women, and feasibility for use
IPT-SP doses should not be given more frequently than monthly.
Insecticide-Treated Nets
ITNs should be provided to pregnant women as early in pregnancy as possible.
Their use should be encouraged for women throughout pregnancy and during the
postpartum period.
21. Placental Infection
Malaria-infected human placenta examined under the microscope. The
intervillous spaces (central area of the picture) are filled with red blood cells, most
of which are infected with Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites
22. Treatment of Maternal Syphilis
Provide screening and treatment in areas
where syphilis is endemic
Untreated syphilis can cause malformation, illness,
or death of a fetus or newborn
23. Treatment of Syphilis
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by a spirochete ~
Treponema pallidum
Syphilis can cause miscarriages, premature birth, still-birth, or
death of newborn babies:
40% of births to syphilitic mothers are stillborn
40-70% of the survivors will be infected
12% of these will subsequently die
24. Syphilis
Some infants have symptoms at birth, most develop symptoms
later
Late congenital syphilis occurs in children greater that 2 years of age:
Hutchinson teeth
Interstitial keratitis
Deafness
Frontal bossing
Saddle nose
Swollen knees
Saber shins
Short maxillae
Protruding mandible
Sores on infected babies are infectious
25. Congenital Syphilis
Failure to gain weight
Fever
Irritability
No bridge to nose (saddle nose)
Early rash -- small blisters on the palms and soles
Later rash -- copper-colored, flat or bumpy rash on the face, palms, soles
Rash of the mouth, genitalia, and anus
Severe congenital pneumonia
Watery discharge from the nose
Blindness
Clouding of the cornea
Decreased hearing or deafness
Gray, mucous-like patches
26.
27. Treatment of Syphilis
One dose of penicillin will cure a person who has had
syphilis for less than a year
More doses are needed to cure someone who has had it
for longer
A baby born with the disease needs daily penicillin
treatment for 10 days
28. Essential Care for Newborns
Essential care for all newborns
Cleanliness
Thermal protection
Early and exclusive breast-feeding
Eye Care
Immunization
Essential care for sick newborns
Care of low birth weight babies
Management of newborn illnesses
Neonatal Resuscitation*
29. Routine Supportive Care for All
Newborns after delivery
Keep baby dry and warm
Keep baby with mother – room in
Initiate breast-feeding within 1 hour
Give Vitamin K
Keep umbilical cord clean and dry
Apply eye ointment to prevent infection
Give oral polio, BCG, and hepatitis B injections
30. Cleanliness
The six “cleans” of the WHO
1. Clean hands of the attendant
2. Clean surface
3. Clean blade
4. Clean cord tie
5. Clean towels to dry the baby and then wrap the
baby
6. Clean cloth to wrap the mother
31. Cleanliness
Hygiene during delivery:
Clean hands, perineum, delivery surface
Sterilized equipment
Clean cutting of umbilical cord
Clean hands with soap and water, under the nails
Sterile razor blade for cutting cord
Sterile ties or gauze to tie cord off
Umbilical cord care
Umbilical stump is main source of entry for infections
Cord should be kept clean and dry, no dressings should be applied if stump is able
to be kept clean without them
Infant’s clothes and blanket should be kept clean
If cord becomes dirty, it should be washed and then dried with clean cotton or
gauze
32. Cleanliness
Prevention of hospital infections:
Rooming-in with mother:
Allows micro-organisms from mother to be given to infant
These tend to be non-pathogenic
Mother can give antibodies to these organisms to the baby through
breast-milk
Reduces risk of cross-infection when babies are not being roomed
together
No over-crowding
Clean water
Importance of hospital staff hand-washing!!!
34. Thermal Protection
Hypothermia can be a sign of infection!!!
Hypothermia is temperature less than 36.5 degrees C
Large surface area
Poor insulation
Small body mass to produce heat
Signs of hypothermia
cool hands and feet
less active or lethargic
Hypotonic
poor suck
weak cry
shallow breathing
redness of face and skin
35. Thermal Protection
Preventing hypothermia:
deliver infant in warm room
dry thoroughly after birth, including drying the head,
wrap in warm dry cloth
give to mother as soon as possible for skin to skin contact
no washing in the 1st 6 hours after birth
Treatment:
skin to skin contact
warm water bottles
loosely wrapped warm blanket
37. Thermal Protection
Hyperthermia is a temperature > 37.5 degrees C
Signs:
Irritable
Rapid respirations
Rapid heart rate
Hot and dry skin
Lethargic
Convulsions
Hyperthermia is often accompanied by dehydration and re-
hydration should be considered if infant is showing any signs
38. Thermal Protection
Prevention:
Hyperthermia in an infant is environmental
Do not expose infant to high temperatures, sunlight, heaters,
etc!!
Treatment:
Active cooling
39. Early and Exclusive Breast-feeding
Early and exclusive breastfeeding is one of
the least expensive and most cost-effective
interventions for saving children’s lives!!!!
40. Early and Exclusive Breastfeeding
Exclusive breastfeeding for six months and continued
breastfeeding for the first year could avert 13 percent of the
more than 10 million deaths among children
Benefits:
including improved cognitive development
reduced risk of infections
better overall chances of survival
41. Early and Exclusive Breastfeeding
Formula feeding raises risk of illness by depriving infants of
infection-fighting components of human milk
Bottle feeding carries risks of possible contamination of water
and formula
In areas with a high level of infectious disease and unsafe water,
an infant who is not breastfed during the first 2 months of life is
up to 23 times more likely to die from diarrhea
42. 1. Initiation of breastfeeding within one hour of birth
colostrum
continuous skin-to-skin contact
2. Exclusive breastfeeding for six months
3. Assess for good attachment and positioning
4. Prompt treatment of breast conditions
5. Frequent breastfeeds, day and night
(8-12 times per 24 hours)
6. Continuation of breastfeeding when mother or newborn is ill
7. Extra support for feeding more vulnerable newborns
low birthweight or premature babies
HIV-infected women
sick or severely malnourished babies
43. Early and Exclusive Breast-feeding
Breast-feeding and HIV:
Exclusive breastfeeding recommended for all mothers in
HIV-endemic areas, including HIV-positive mothers where
alternatives are not acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable, and
safe
This applies to much of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, among
other places.
Exclusive breastfeeding is associated with two to four times lower
rates of mother to child transmission of HIV compared to non-
exclusive breastfeeding
44. Eye Care: application of topical
antibiotic
Tetracycline eye ointment
Prevents infection of tissues surrounding the eyes
caused by bacteria from the birth canal
The most significant of these bacteria are gonorrhea and
chlamydia
Also helps prevent infection with other bacteria
Untreated, gonorrhea and chlamydia can cause permanent
visual impairment and also spread to other parts of the body
such as the lungs causing pneumonia
45. Immunization
Each year, over four million African children die before their
fifth birthday, many from vaccine-preventable diseases
Immunizations will be covered in later lecture
But, notably, there are a number of vaccines given to babies just
after birth to be aware of:
• BCG vaccination to reduce the risk of tuberculosis
• Hepatitis B vaccination to prevent hepatitis B infection
• OPV to prevent polio infection
46. Supportive Care for All Newborns after
delivery: KEY POINTS!!!
Keep baby dry and warm
Keep baby with mother – room in
Initiate breast-feeding within 1 hour
Give Vitamin K
Keep umbilical cord clean and dry
Apply eye ointment to prevent infection
Give oral polio, BCG, and hepatitis B injections
48. Management of Sick Infant: Outline
Care for ALL sick infants
Recognizing danger signs
Treating serious bacterial infection
Treating convulsions
Treating low birth weight baby
Review of key points
49. Management of Newborn Illness
Neonates and young infants present with non-
specific symptoms which may indicate a serious
illness or serious bacterial illness
It is imperative to monitor for and recognize
these danger signs to initiate treatment early
Treatment is aimed at stabilizing child and
preventing deterioration
50. General principles of management of all
sick infants:
Keep infant dry and warm
Wrap infant
Cap
Kangaroo infant with mother if possible
Follow temperature closely
51. General principles of management of
sick infants:
Encourage frequent breast-feeding if infant is alert
If baby is lethargic or having frequent convulsions, avoid
oral feeding
52. General principles of management of
sick infants:
If giving IV fluids, follow the TOTAL amount of fluids given
to infant
This includes oral and IV fluid
WHO recommends:
60cc/kg/day on Day 1
90cc/kg/day on Day 2
120cc/kg/day on Day 3
150cc/kg/day thereafter
Note: Infant may need more fluids if kept under radiant warmer
Note: Following infant’s weight is good measure of over or under-
hydration
53. General principles of management of
sick infants:
Oxygen should be given by nasal prongs at initial
flow rate of 0.5L/min
If able to follow pulse oximeter, goal is oxygen
saturation greater than 90%
54. Recognizing Danger Signs
Danger signs in a newborn:
• Convulsions
• Drowsy or unconscious
• Not feeding well
• Fast breathing (more than 60 breaths per minute)
• Slow breathing (less than 20 breaths per minute or not
breathing)
• Grunting or severe chest in-drawing
• Fever (above 38°C)
55. Recognizing Danger Signs
Danger signs in a newborn:
• Hypothermia (below 35.5°C),
• Very small baby (less than 1500 grams or born more than two
months early)
• Bleeding
• Severe jaundice
• Severe abdominal distension
• Bulging fontanelle
• Signs of local infection (ex: swollen joints, skin pustules or
redness)
• Central cyanosis
56. Emergency Treatment of Danger Signs
Give oxygen by nasal prongs or catheter to
any ill-appearing infant
Especially if having respiratory symptoms
Provide bag and mask ventilation if breathing
is too slow or labored
With oxygen if available, or room air
57. Emergency Treatment of Danger Signs
Give penicillin/ampicillin and gentamicin as
soon as possible to any infant presenting with
signs of illness
58. Emergency Treatment of Danger Signs
If convulsing, give Phenobarbital (IM 15mg/kg)
If patient is drowsy, unconscious, or convulsing:
Check blood sugar if possible, give IV glucose if blood
sugar is low
If unable to check blood sugar, give IV glucose
If unable to give IV glucose, give either expressed breast-
milk or glucose through a nasogastric tube
59. Emergency Treatment of Danger Signs
Give vitamin K injection to all sick newborns
if they have not already received it
60. Serious Bacterial Illness
Serious bacterial infection should be suspected if
an infant presents with any DANGER SIGN
Risks for serious bacterial infection include:
maternal fever
rupture of membranes for more than 24 hours
foul-smelling amniotic fluid
61. Serious Bacterial Illness
Also look for signs of a local infection:
swollen joints
many severe skin pustules
bulging fontanelle
redness around umbilicus
pus from umbilicus
62. Serious Bacterial Illness
Treatment of suspected serious bacterial illness:
Admit to Hospital
Send blood cultures if possible
Ampicillin/Penicillin and Gentamicin for 10 days
If no improvement in 2-3 days consider changing antibiotics
If extensive skin infection consider giving Cloxacillin if
available instead of Penicillin for staph aureus coverage
63. Convulsions
Treatment:
Initial dose of Phenobarbital is 15mg/kg IM
If convulsions continue, give 10mg/kg IM in repeat
doses up to maximum of 40mg/kg
Monitor for apnea or slowed breathing and assist
breathing if needed
Check for low blood sugar
Continue daily Phenobarbital at 5mg/kg if needed
64. Low Birth Weight Baby
Most newborn deaths are among low
birthweight babies
Low birth weight is baby weighing less than
2500 grams
Simple care of these small babies, close
monitoring and early treatment of problems
could save many newborn lives
65. Low Birth Weight Baby
Birthweight of 2.25-2.5kg
These infants normally do well with routine newborn care
Monitor carefully
Ensure proper warmth and infection control
66. Low Birth Weight Baby
Birthweight 1.75 to 2.25kg
Initiate Kangaroo Care for warmth
Start feeding within 1 hr
If infant is able to nurse, allow normal, frequent
breast-feeding
If infant cannot breast-feed, give expressed breast-
milk by cup and spoon
Monitor carefully for signs of infection
67. Low Birth Weight Baby
Birthweight less than 1.75 kg
These infants need to be admitted to special care nursery for
extra care
Give oxygen by nasal prongs or nasal catheter if there are any
signs of difficulty breathing, fast breathing rate or cyanosis
Maintain temperature of 36-37 deg C
Kangaroo Care
Humidicrib if available
Hot water bottle wrapped in a towel if no heating source
68. Low Birth Weight Baby
Birthweight less than 1.75 kg
If possible, give IV fluids
Give 2-4ml of expressed breastmilk every 2 hours by
nasogastric tube IF:
baby looks well
no abdominal distension
bowel sounds present
baby has passed meconium,
If baby is tolerating these feeds, increase volume slowly
69. Low Birth Weight Baby
Birthweight less than 1.75 kg
Monitor for signs of infection and begin antibiotic
therapy if any sign prsent
If infant has apnea, treat:
caffeine citrate 20mg/kg PO or IV x 1, then daily 5mg/kg
OR aminophylline 10mg/kg x 1, then 2.5 - 4 mg/kg q 12
hours
70. Low Birth Weight Baby
Kangaroo Care:
The baby is undressed except for cap, nappy, and socks
Placed upright between the mother’s breasts, with head turned to one side
Then tied to the mother’s chest with a cloth and covered with the mother’s
clothes
If the mother is not available, the father or any adult can provide skin-to-skin care
Provides warmth, breastfeeding, protection from infection, stimulation, and
love
Effective way to care for a small baby weighing between 1,000 and 2,000
grams who has no major illness
71. Low Birth Weight Baby
Kangaroo Care:
This care is continued until the infant no longer
accepts it, usually when the weight exceeds 2,000
grams
Research has shown that for preterm babies, KMC is
at least as effective as an incubator
Shorter average stay in hospital compared to
conventional care, have fewer infections, and gain
weight more quickly