Reading notes

1. Tshen Tashi (59064485)
How Languages are Learned
Pasty M. Lightbown and Nina Spada
Chapter 3: Individual Differences in Second Language Learning
Research on learner characteristics
Researchers use a statistical procedure called a correlation to find out how variables like
motivation and language proficiency affect individual differences in L2 learning. Individual
differences that are inherent in the learner can predict success or failure in language learning.
One problem is that, unlike variables such as height or age, it is not possible to directly observe
and measure variables such as motivation, extroversion, or even intelligence. Such characteristics
are not independent of each other, and researchers have sometimes used the same label to
describe different sets of behavioural traits. Perhaps the most serious error in interpreting
correlations is the conclusion that one of the variables causes the other. Another difficulty in
assessing the relationship between individual learner characteristics and second language
learning is how language proficiency is defined and measured. Another difficulty is how
language proficiency is defined and measured. Research on individual differences must also take
into account the social and educational settings in which learners find themselves. Understanding
the relationship between individual characteristics, social situation, and success in L2 learning is
a challenge.
Intelligence
The term 'intelligence' has traditionally been used to refer to performance on certain kinds of
tests. Some research has shown that IQ scores were a good means of predicting success in SLA.
Fred Genesee's (1976) found out that intelligence was related to the development of French
second language reading, grammar, and vocabulary; it was unrelated to oral production skills.
Howard Gardner's (1993) propose that individuals have 'multiple intelligences' and traditional IQ
tests have assessed only a limited range of abilities.
Language and learning aptitude
Recent aptitude measures the ability to identify and memorize new sounds, understand the
function of particular words in sentences, figure out grammatical rules from language samples,
remember new words. Leila Ranta (2002) found that children who were good at analysing
language were the most successful learners in an English second language program. Nick Ellis
(2001) has hypothesized that working memory may be the most important variable in predicting
success for learners in many language learning situations. Peter Skehan (1989) argues that
successful language learners may not be strong in all of the components of aptitude. Marjorie
Wesche's (1981) study reported a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students
were matched with compatible teaching environments. Some evidence indicated that matched
students were able to attain significantly higher levels of achievement than those who were
mismatched. While few schools could offer such choices to their students, teachers may be able
to ensure that their teaching activities are sufficiently varied to accommodate learners with
different aptitude profiles. Lorraine Obler (1989) reported on the case of one American man who
seemed able to acquire oral fluency in a new language in 'a matter of weeks'.Neil Smith and
Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli (1995) suggested such exceptional learners suggest that an aptitude for

2. language learning is at least partly independent of cognitive, social, and personality
characteristics that are often associated with successful learning.
Learning style
Individuals have been described as field independent or field dependent. It is difficult to
determine whether learning styles reflect unchangeable differences or whether they develop
through experience. Research on learning styles should make us sceptical of claims that a single
teaching method or textbook will suit the needs of all learners.
Personality
It is often argued that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning. However,
research does not always support this conclusion. It has been suggested that inhibition
discourages risk-taking, which is necessary for progress in language learning. Anxiety; not a
static trait but dynamic and dependent on specific situations. It has been argued that a certain
amount of tension can have a positive effect and even facilitate learning. According to
Macintyre, Clement, Dornyei, and Noels (1998), learners who willingly communicate in a wide
range of conversational interactions are able to do so because their prior language learning has
led to the development of self-confidence. Another explanation is that personality variables may
be a major factor only in the acquisition of conversational skills, not in the acquisition of literacy
or academic skills.
Attitude and motivation
Both instrumental and integrative motivation shown related to success in second language
learning, but the distinction is not always very clear. Zoltan Dornyei’s (2001a) three phases of
motivation; choice motivation, executive motivation, and motivation retrospection found
effective on a secondary school learner in Saudi Arabia.
Motivation in the classroom
Teachers’ motivational strategies can make a positive contribution to students' motivation to
learn. Research by Guilloteaux and Drornyei (2008) found out significant positive correlations
between the teacher’s motivational practices in the classroom, learners’ engagement behaviours
and learner’s self-report in motivation orientation of language teaching.
Identity and ethnic group affiliation
Members of a minority group learning the language of a majority group may have different
attitudes and motivation from those of majority group members learning a minority language.
Children, as well as adults, are sensitive to social dynamics and power relationships. Different
research found out that social situations and identities could eventually lead to participation in
their classroom community.
Learner beliefs
Research indicates that learner beliefs can be strong factors in their experience in the classroom.
Renate Schulz (2001) found that there is a mismatch between learner and teacher belief, but
other research shows the belief among learners of different language background differs. In
Lightbown and Spada's research on learner beliefs and preferences for learning, they were
interested in exploring not whether grammatical instruction should be provided but when learners
prefer grammar to be taught particularly in exploring whether learners prefer to be taught about
language forms in separate lessons or in lessons where form-focused and meaning-focused

3. instruction are integrated. The result showed both groups preferred integrating attention to
grammar within the communicative practice but ESL learners preferred the opposite.
Individual difference and classroom instruction
The teacher should adopt teaching strategies which can address the individual learning style of
learners.
Age and second language learning
The age characteristic is easier to define and measure than personality, aptitude, or motivation.
However, the relationship between age and success in SLA is controversial. It has been
hypothesized that there is a critical period for second language acquisition just as there is for first
language acquisition. In addition to the possible biological differences between children and
adults that are suggested by the Critical Period Hypothesis, the conditions for language learning
are often very different. On the other hand, some studies of the L2 development of older and
younger learners, learning in similar circumstances, have shown that, at least in the early stages
of L2 development, older learners are more efficient than younger learners. By using their
metalinguistic knowledge, memory strategies, and problem-solving skills, they make the most of
second or foreign language instruction.
The critical period: More than just pronunciation?
Studies have concluded that older learners almost inevitably have a noticeable 'foreign accent'.
Mark Patkowski found out second language speakers who had begun learning English before the
age of 15 performed better than those who begin learning after 15.
Intuition of grammaticality
Johnson and Newport’s study in 1989 about grammaticality judgements and found out learners
who began earliest in the United States performed better than the later age. It proved that adult
learner may learn a language in a way that is different from the way young children learn.
Rate of learning
Catherine Snow and Marian Hoefnagel Hohle’s study found out that adolescent learners
performed better than younger in learning as well as in score. By the end of the years the
younger was catching or had surpassed the elders in several measures but in overall adolescent
retain the level of performance.
Age and second language instruction
Many people believe 'younger is better'. Research shows older learners can achieve high levels of
proficiency in their L2. The older learners acquire in a short period of time will satisfy the needs
of learners in many learning contexts but not native-like mastery. Native-like mastery – should
be completely surrounded by the language. Basic communicative ability – it may be more
efficient to begin L2 teaching later. The number of instructional hours plays an important role in
the performance of learners. Decisions about when to start second language programmes in
schools should be based on realistic estimates of how long it takes to learn a second language.
Age is one of the characteristics that determine the way in which an individual approach second
language learning. However, the rate of learning and eventual success in learning are affected by
the opportunities for learning (both inside and outside the classroom), the motivation to learn,
and aptitude for language learning.