DM 5113, MSDM, DU

1. SOLAR SYSTEM
1. Formation of the SOLAR SYSTEM
2. Discovery and exploration
3. Components of the SOLAR SYSTEM
4. Terminology
5. Description of the Components of the SOLAR SYSTEM
6. Farthest Regions
7. Galactic Context

2. The standard model for the formation of the Solar System (including
the Earth) is the solar nebula hypothesis. In this model, the Solar system
formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called
the solar nebula. It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly
after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected
by supernovae. About 4.5 Ga, the nebula began a contraction that may have
been triggered by the shock wave of a nearby supernova. A shock wave would
have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate,
its angular momentum, gravity and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary
disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Small perturbations due to
collisions and the angular momentum of other large debris created the
means by which kilometer-sized protoplanets began to form, orbiting the
nebular center.
FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

3. The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the
compression heating it until nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium began. After more
contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun. Meanwhile, in the outer
part of the nebula gravity caused matter to condense around density perturbations and
dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a
process known as runaway accretion, successively larger fragments of dust and debris
clumped together to form planets. Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion
years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–
20 million years. The solar wind of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of
the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same
process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars
in the universe, some of which yield planets.
The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the
heavy, siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates, these metals
sank. This so-called iron catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive
mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form,
producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's
magnetic field. J. A. Jacobs was the first to suggest that the inner core—a solid center
distinct from the liquid outer core—is freezing and growing out of the liquid outer core
due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion
years).

4.  For many thousands of years, humanity, with a few notable exceptions,
did not recognize the existence of the Solar System. They believed the
Earth to be stationary at the center of the universe and categorically
different from the divine objects that moved through the sky. Although
the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a
heliocentric reordering of the cosmos.
 Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive
heliocentric system. His 17th-century successors, Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, developed an understanding of
physics which led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that the Earth
moves around the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same
physical laws that governed the Earth.
 In more recent times, improvements in the telescope and the use of
unmanned spacecraft have enabled the investigation of geological
phenomena such as mountains and craters, and seasonal meteorological
phenomena such as clouds, dust storms and ice caps on the other
planets.

5. SOLAR SYSTEM: Structure
 The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it
by gravity, all of which formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud
approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Of the series of objects that orbit the
Sun, most of the mass is contained within eight relatively solitary planets
whose orbits are almost circular and lie within a nearly-flat disc called the
ecliptic plane. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars, also called the terrestrial planets, are primarily composed of rock and
metal. The five outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus ,Neptune, and 9th
Planet also called the gas giants, are composed largely of hydrogen and
helium and are far more massive than the terrestrials.

7.  The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, that contains
99.86 percent of the system's known mass and dominates it
gravitationally. The Sun's four largest orbiting bodies, the gas giants,
account for 99 percent of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn
together comprising more than 90 percent.
 Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's
orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic
while comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly
greater angles to it.
 All the planets and most other objects also orbit with the Sun's
rotation (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above the Sun's north
pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.

8. Structure Contd.
 Due to the vast distances involved, many representations of the Solar System show orbits
the same distance apart. In reality, with a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is
from the Sun, the larger the distance between it and the previous orbit. For example,
Venus is approximately 0.33 astronomical units (AU) farther out from the Sun than
Mercury, while Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from
Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a correlation between these orbital
distances (for example, the Titius-Bode law), but no such theory has been accepted.
 Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. According
to Kepler's laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects
closer to the Sun (with smaller semi-major axes) have shorter years. On an elliptical
orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest
approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, while its most distant point from the Sun is
called its aphelion. Each body moves fastest at its perihelion and slowest at its aphelion.
The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids and Kuiper belt
objects follow highly elliptical orbits.

9. Most of the planets in the Solar System possess secondary systems of
their own. Many are in turn orbited by planetary objects called
natural satellites, or moons, some of which are larger than the planet
Mercury. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous
rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent. The
four largest planets, the gas giants, also possess planetary rings,
thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison.
Structure Contd.

10. The orbits of the bodies in the Solar System to scale (clockwise
from top left)

11. Terminology
 Informally, the Solar System is sometimes divided into separate regions. The inner Solar
System includes the four terrestrial planets and the main asteroid belt. The outer Solar
System is beyond the asteroids, including the four gas giant planets. Since the discovery
of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct
region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.
 Dynamically and physically, objects orbiting the Sun are officially classed into three
categories: planets, dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. A planet is any body in
orbit around the Sun that has enough mass to form itself into a spherical shape and has
cleared its immediate neighbourhood of all smaller objects. By this definition, the Solar
System has eight known planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune. Pluto does not fit this definition, as it has not cleared its orbit of
surrounding Kuiper belt objects.
 A dwarf planet is a celestial body orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be rounded
by its own gravity but which has not cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals
and is not a satellite. By this definition, the Solar System has five known dwarf planets:
Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.
 Other objects may be classified in the future as dwarf planets, such as Sedna, Orcus, and
Quaoar. Dwarf planets that orbit in the trans-Neptunian region are called "plutoids".
The remainder of the objects in orbit around the Sun are small Solar System bodies.

12. Terminology
 Planetary scientists use the terms gas, ice, and rock to describe the various classes
of substances found throughout the Solar System.
 Rock is used to describe compounds with high condensation temperatures or
melting points that remained solid under almost all conditions in the
protoplanetary nebula. Rocky substances typically include silicates and metals such
as iron and nickel. They are prevalent in the inner Solar System, forming most of
the terrestrial planets and asteroids.
 Gases are materials with extremely low melting points and high vapor pressure such
as molecular hydrogen, helium, and neon, which were always in the gaseous phase
in the nebula. They dominate the middle region of the Solar System, comprising
most of Jupiter and Saturn. Ices, like water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide
and carbon dioxide, have melting points up to a few hundred kelvins, while their
phase depends on the ambient pressure and temperature. They can be found as
ices, liquids, or gases in various places in the Solar System, while in the nebula they
were either in the solid or gaseous phase.
 Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets, as well as
most of Uranus and Neptune (the so-called "ice giants") and the numerous small
objects that lie beyond Neptune's orbit. Together, gases and ices are referred to as
volatiles.

13. Planets and Dwarf Planets of the Solar System.
 The Solar System is also home to two regions populated by smaller objects. The asteroid
belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter, is similar to the terrestrial planets as it is
composed mainly of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie trans-Neptunian objects
composed mostly of ices such as water, ammonia and methane. Within these two
regions, five individual objects, Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris, are
recognized to be large enough to have been rounded by their own gravity, and are thus
termed dwarf planets. In addition to thousands of small bodies in those two regions,
various other small body populations, such as comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust,
freely travel between regions.
 The solar wind, a flow of plasma from the Sun, creates a bubble in the interstellar
medium known as the heliosphere, which extends out to the edge of the scattered disc.
The hypothetical Oort cloud, which acts as the source for long-period comets, may also
exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere.
 Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by natural satellites,[b]
usually termed "moons" after Earth's Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by
planetary rings of dust and other particles.

14. ROTATING PLANETS AROUND THE
SUN

15. Planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System.

16. SUN
The Sun is the Solar System's star, and by far its chief component. Its large mass (332,900
Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core great enough to sustain
nuclear fusion, which releases enormous amounts of energy, mostly radiated into space
as electromagnetic radiation, peaking in the 400–to–700 nm band we call visible light.
 The Sun is classified as a yellow dwarf, but this name is misleading as, compared to the
majority of stars in our galaxy, the Sun is rather large and bright. Stars are classified by
the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a graph which plots the brightness of stars with their
surface temperatures. Generally, hotter stars are brighter. Stars following this pattern are
said to be on the main sequence, and the Sun lies right in the middle of it. However,
stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, while substantially dimmer and cooler
stars, known as red dwarfs, are common, making up 85 percent of the stars in the galaxy.
 The Sun is growing brighter; early in its history it was 70 percent as bright as it is today.
 The Sun is a population I star; it was born in the later stages of the universe's evolution,
and thus contains more elements heavier than hydrogen and helium than older
population II stars. This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's
developing a planetary system, because planets form from accretion of "metal .

17. INTERPLANETARY MEDIUM
 Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma)
known as the solar wind. This stream of particles spreads outwards at roughly 1.5 million
kilometres per hour, creating a tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) that permeates
the Solar System out to at least 100 AU (see heliopause). This is known as the
interplanetary medium. Geomagnetic storms on the Sun's surface, such as solar flares
and coronal mass ejections, disturb the heliosphere, creating space weather. The largest
structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet, a spiral form created
by the actions of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium.
 Cosmic rays originate outside the Solar System. The heliosphere partially shields the
Solar System, and planetary magnetic fields (for those planets that have them) also
provide some protection. The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the
strength of the Sun's magnetic field change on very long timescales, so the level of
cosmic radiation in the Solar System varies, though by how much is unknown.
 The interplanetary medium is home to at least two disc-like regions of cosmic dust. The
first, the zodiacal dust cloud, lies in the inner Solar System and causes zodiacal light. It
was likely formed by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by interactions with
the planets. The second extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU, and was probably
created by similar collisions within the Kuiper belt .

18. The heliospheric current sheet.

19. Inner Solar System
 The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the
terrestrial planets and asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the
objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of
this entire region is shorter than the distance between Jupiter and Saturn.
 Inner planets
 The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no
moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals,
such as the silicates which form their crusts and mantles, and metals such as
iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus,
Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all
have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and
volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet,
which designates those planets which are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e.
Mercury and Venus).

20. The inner planets. From left to right: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars (sizes to
scale, interplanetary distances not)

21. MERCURY
 Mercury (0.4 AU from the Sun) is the closest planet to
the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System
(0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites,
and its only known geological features besides impact
craters are lobed ridges or rupes, probably produced by a
period of contraction early in its history. Mercury's
almost negligible atmosphere consists of atoms blasted
off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron
core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately
explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were
stripped off by a giant impact, and that it was prevented
from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.

22.  Venus (0.7 AU from the Sun) is close in size to Earth, (0.815 Earth
masses) and like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron
core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological
activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere
is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the
hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C, most likely
due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No
definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected
on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent
depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its
atmosphere is regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.

23. Earth
 Earth (1 AU from the Sun) is the largest and densest of the inner
planets, the only one known to have current geological activity,
and is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist.
Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and
it is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed.
Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other
planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21%
free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large
satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.

24. MARS
 Mars (1.5 AU from the Sun) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107
Earth masses). It possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon
dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6
percent that of the Earth's). Its surface, peppered with vast
volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such as Valles
Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until
as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron
oxide (rust) in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos
and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.

25. ASTERIODBELT
 Asteroids are mostly small Solar System bodies composed mainly of refractory rocky and
metallic minerals.
The main asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and
3.3 AU from the Sun. It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that
failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter.
 Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic. All asteroids
save the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies, but some asteroids such
as Vesta and Hygieia may be reclassed as dwarf planets if they are shown to have achieved
hydrostatic equilibrium.
 The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one
kilometre in diameter. Despite this, the total mass of the main belt is unlikely to be more
than a thousandth of that of the Earth. The main belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft
routinely pass through without incident. Asteroids with diameters between 10 and 10−4 m
are called meteoroids.
 Asteroids in the main belt are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their
orbital characteristics. Asteroid moons are asteroids that orbit larger asteroids. They are not
as clearly distinguished as planetary moons, sometimes being almost as large as their
partners. The asteroid belt also contains main-belt comets which may have been the source
of Earth's water.

26. Image of the main asteroid belt and the Trojan asteroids

27. OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM
 The outer region of the Solar System is home to the gas giants and their large
moons. Many short period comets, including the centaurs, also orbit in this
region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer
Solar System contain more ices (such as water, ammonia, methane, often called
ices in planetary science) than the rocky denizens of the inner Solar System, as
the colder temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid.
 The five outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets),
collectively make up 99 percent of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and
Saturn are each many tens of times the mass of the Earth and consist
overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium; Uranus, Neptune and the 9th Planet
are far less massive (<20 Earth masses) and possess more ices in their makeup.
For these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category,
“ice giants. All five gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is
easily observed from Earth. The term outer planet should not be confused with
superior planet, which designates planets outside Earth's orbit and thus
includes both the outer planets and Mars.

28. OUTER PLANETS
 Uranus
 Uranus (19.6 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely
among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to
the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very
little heat into space.
 Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel,
Ariel and Miranda.
 Neptune
 Neptune (30 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent
to 17 Earths) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as
much as Jupiter or Saturn.
 Neptune has 13 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with
geysers of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit.
Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune
Trojans, that are in 1:1 resonance with it.

29. OUTER PLANETS
 Jupiter
-- Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, is 2.5 times all the mass of all the other planets
put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium.
--Jupiter has 63 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa,
show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating.[58]
Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.
 Saturn
 Saturn (9.5 AU), distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to
Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn
has 60% of Jupiter's volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95 Earth masses,
making it the least dense planet in the Solar System.
 Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of
geological activity, though they are largely made of ice. Titan, the second largest
moon in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar
System with a substantial atmosphere. rnal heat creates a number of semi-
permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot.

30. OUTER PLANETS
From top to bottom: Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter (not to scale)

31. COMETS
 Comets
 Comet Hale-Bopp
 Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a
few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices.
They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion
within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far
beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar
System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to
sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas
and dust often visible to the naked eye.

32. Comet Hale-Bopp

33. KUIPER BELT
 The Kuiper belt, the region's first formation, is a great ring of debris similar to the
asteroid belt, but composed mainly of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from
the Sun. It is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies, but many of the
largest Kuiper belt objects, such as Quaoar, Varuna, and Orcus, may be reclassified
as dwarf planets. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a
diameter greater than 50 km, but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be
only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of the Earth. Many Kuiper belt objects
have multiple satellites, and most have orbits that take them outside the plane of
the ecliptic.
 The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the "classical" belt and the resonances.
Resonances are orbits linked to that of Neptune (e.g. twice for every three Neptune
orbits, or once for every two). The first resonance begins within the orbit of
Neptune itself. The classical belt consists of objects having no resonance with
Neptune, and extends from roughly 39.4 AU to 47.7 AU. Members of the classical
Kuiper belt are classified as cubewanos, after the first of their kind to be discovered,
(15760) 1992 QB1, and are still in near primordial, low-eccentricity orbits.

34. KUIPER BELT

35. FARTHEST REGIONS
 The point at which the Solar System ends and interstellar
space begins is not precisely defined, since its outer
boundaries are shaped by two separate forces: the solar
wind and the Sun's gravity. The outer limit of the solar
wind's influence is roughly four times Pluto's distance
from the Sun; this heliopause is considered the
beginning of the interstellar medium. However, the
Sun's Roche sphere, the effective range of its
gravitational dominance, is believed to extend up to a
thousand times farther.

36.  The heliosphere is divided into two separate regions. The solar wind travels at
roughly 400 km/s until it collides with the interstellar wind; the flow of plasma in
the interstellar medium. The collision occurs at the termination shock, which is
roughly 80–100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly
200 AU from the Sun downwind. Here the wind slows dramatically, condenses and
becomes more turbulent, forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath.
This structure is believed to look and behave very much like a comet's tail,
extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times
that distance downwind; but evidence from the Cassini and Interstellar Boundary
Explorer spacecraft has suggested that it is in fact forced into a bubble shape by the
constraining action of the interstellar magnetic field. Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2
are reported to have passed the termination shock and entered the heliosheath, at
94 and 84 AU from the Sun, respectively. The outer boundary of the heliosphere,
the heliopause, is the point at which the solar wind finally terminates and is the
beginning of interstellar

37. FARTHEST REGIONS

38. 00RT CLOUD
 The hypothetical Oort cloud is a spherical cloud of up to a trillion
icy objects that is believed to be the source for all long-period
comets and to surround the Solar System at roughly 50,000 AU
(around 1 light-year (LY)), and possibly to as far as 100,000 AU
(1.87 LY). It is believed to be composed of comets which were
ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions
with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and
can be perturbed by infrequent events such as collisions, the
gravitational effects of a passing star, or the galactic tide, the tidal
force exerted by the Milky Way.

40. GALACTIC CONTEXT
 The Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy, a barred spiral galaxy
with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing about 200 billion
stars. Our Sun resides in one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as
the Orion Arm or Local Spur. The Sun lies between 25,000 and 28,000 light
years from the Galactic Centre, and its speed within the galaxy is about 220
kilometres per second, so that it completes one revolution every 225–250
million years. This revolution is known as the Solar System's galactic year.
The solar apex, the direction of the Sun's path through interstellar space, is
near the constellation of Hercules in the direction of the current location of
the bright star Vega. The plane of the Solar System's ecliptic lies nearly at
right angles (86.5°) to the galactic plane.

41. The Solar System's location in the galaxy is very likely a factor in the
evolution of life on Earth. Its orbit is close to being circular and is at roughly
the same speed as that of the spiral arms, which means it passes through
them only rarely. Since spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of
potentially dangerous supernovae, this has given Earth long periods of
interstellar stability for life to evolve. The Solar System also lies well outside
the star-crowded environs of the galactic centre. Near the centre,
gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort Cloud
and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with
potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. The intense radiation
of the galactic centre could also interfere with the development of complex
life. Even at the Solar System's current location, some scientists have
hypothesised that recent supernovae may have adversely affected life in the
last 35,000 years by flinging pieces of expelled stellar core towards the Sun as
radioactive dust grains and larger, comet-like bodies.
GALACTIC CONTEXT

42. Location of the Solar System within our galaxy