4. The dream of Worldwide Democratic
and Social Republic( Fredric Sorrieu)
In 1848, Fredric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of
four prints visualising his dream of world made up of
democratic and social Republic
(state, resources are equally distributed among the workers).
•His First Print showed people of Europe and America-men
and women of all ages and social classes-marching in a long
train and offering homage( special honour / respect) to the
statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
5. Cont….
Liberty is of-course personified (represent) as a woman,
bearing the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the
Charter( legislative) of the rights of Man in the other,( The
artist of this time of French Revolution portrayed Liberty as a
female figure)
On the earth, in the foreground of the image, lay the shattered
remains of the symbols of Absolute
( single person rule / monarchy) institutions.
Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the
United States of America and Switzerland which were at that
time already nation states ( one in which the majority of its
citizens, and rulers, came to develop a sense of common
identity and shared history ).
6. Cont….
In his utopian vision( imaginary) ; people of the world are grouped
together as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national
costume.
France, distinguished by its tricolour flag, has just reached the statue,
and she is followed by Germany with their black and gold flag.
(Germany was not united, but in 1848, when this painting was made, it
expressed the hopes of the nation).
People of Austria, Kingdoms of two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland,
England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia follow in that order.
From the heavens, Christ, Saints and angels showering blessings upon
the scene. They have been used to symbolise the fraternity among the
nations of the world.
7. Emergence of Nationalism in Europe
* During the 19th century nationalism brought about
sweeping changes in the political and mental world of
Europe.
* Nation states emerged in place of the multi national
dynastic empires of Europe.
* The concept of a modern state had been developing over a
long period of time with struggles, actions of leaders and the
common people in Europe.
8. The French Revolution and The Idea of
the Nation
1) The first clear expression of nationalism came with the
French Revolution in 1789.
2) France was a full-fledge territorial state( territories ruled
by kingship groups) in 1789 under the rule of an absolute
monarch.
3) The political and constitutional changes that came in the
wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of
sovereignty ( authority) from monarchy to a body of
French citizens.
4) The French Revolutionaries introduced various measures
and practices that could create a sense of collective
identity amongst the French people like the ideas of La
Patrie ( the fatherland) and Le Citoyen ( the citizen).
9.
10. Cont….
5) A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the
former royal standard.
6) The Estate General was elected by the body of active
citizens and renamed as the National Assembly.
7) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs
commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
8) A Centralized administrative system formulated, uniform
laws for all citizens within its territory.
11. Cont….
9) Internal customs duties and dues were abolished.
10) A uniform system of weights and measure was adopted.
11) French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became
the common language of the nation by discouraging
regional dialects ( different forms of the same language).
12) The Revolutionaries further declared that it was the
mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate
the people of Europe from despotism
( absolute rule).
12. Cont….
13) Students and other members of educated middle classes
began setting up Jacobin clubs.
14) Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the
French armies which moved in to Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland and much of Italy in 1790s.
15. The French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism
abroad.
16. People in other nations looked at what was happening in
France and decided that perhaps the French had the right
idea.
17. For example, clubs developed in Great Britain that adopted the
ideas of the French Revolution and tried to apply them to their
own country.
13. The Napoleonic Code/ Civil Code of
1804
* The wars conducted by Napoleon on the continent brought
large territories under his control.
* He introduced reforms that he had introduced in France.
* Though Democracy was destroyed when Napoleon came to
power, but he introduced revolutionary principles in the
field of administration.
15. The Napoleonic Code
I) The Civil code of 1804- usually known as the Napoleonic
Code – did away with all the privileges based on birth,
established equality before the law and secured the right
to property.
II) In Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany,
Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished
the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom
( limited freedom) and manorial dues ( fees that peasants
or serfs have to pay to the nobles/ landlords).
16. Cont….
III) Transport and communication system were improved.
IV) In the towns too guild restrictions were removed.
V) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed
a new freedom.
VI) In many places such as Holland, and Switzerland,
Brussels, Mainz ,Milan, Warsaw, the French armies were
welcomed as harbingers( messengers) of liberty.
17. Cont….
VII) But their attitude soon turned into enmity ( active
opposition), because administrative changes did not
bring much relief.
VIII) Increased taxation, censorship, forced enrollment for
French army to conquer the rest of the Europe turned the
people against the France ( Napoleon).
19. Making of Nationalism in Europe
i) In the middle of 18th century, nation states does not exist
in Europe.
ii) Today’s Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided in
to kingdoms, duchies ( areas ruled by senior Sardars) and
Cantoons ( small sub-division of a country).
iii) There was absence of collective identity or common
culture among people.
iv) They spoke different languages and belonging to
different racial groups.
20. Cont….
v) The Habsburg Empire ruled over Austria and Hungary.
vi) In Hungary half of the population spoke Magyar while the
other half of the people spoke variety of dialects.
vii) Lombardy and Venetia which were Italian speaking
regions.
viii) In Galicia the aristocracy spoke Polish.
21. Cont….
ix) Beside these dominant groups, there also lived with the
empire a vast number of peasants, the Bohemians and
Slovaks to the North, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the
South, and Romans to the East in Transylvania.
x) Such diverse group of people could not promote either
political unity or collective identity. The only factor that
bound them together was their loyalty to the emperor.
22. The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class/
Rise of New Middle Class in 19th Century
Aristocracy:
* Socially and politically aristocracy was the dominant class
in European continent.
* They owned large estates in the countryside and also town
houses.
* They spoke French language in high society, the members
of this class were united by common way of life.
* Their families were often connected by ties of marriages.
24. Cont….
*They were small in numbers, while peasant population was
in bulk.
*In the western parts of the Europe land was cultivated by
tenants ( one who holds land from landlords).
* In Eastern and Central Europe the land lords owned vast
estates which were cultivated by serfs( slaves).
25. New Middle Class
* Industrialization began in England in the second half of the
18th century, but in France and parts of German states it
occurred only during the 19th century.
* New social groups came into being:
- a working class population
- middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen,
professionals.
* It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas
of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic
privileges gained popularity.
26.
27. What did Liberal Nationalism stand
for?
* The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber,
meaning free.
* For new middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for
the individual and equality before the law.
* It emphasized the concept of government by consent. A
constitution and representative government through
parliament.
28. History of Liberalism
Liberalism
I ) Political liberalism II ) Economic Liberalism
Struggle for Political liberalism ( Freedom) :
•In Revolutionary France, the right to vote and right to get elected were given to
property owning men
• Men without property and women were excluded from right to vote.
•Under Jacobins, for a brief period all men got the right to vote.
29. Cont….
* During Napoleon’s rule women were reduced to the status
of passive citizens.
* Through out the 19th and early 20th centuries women and
non-propertised men organised movements, demanding
right to vote and equal political rights. Finally in 1946, that
women in France won the right the right to vote.
30. Cont….
Struggle for Economic Liberalism( Freedom):
* Economic liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and
abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of
goods and capital.
* In Germany there were 39 principalities.
* Each of them had its own currency and weight and
measures.
• EX: A merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to
Nuremberg to sell his goods would have had to pass
through 11 customs barriers and pay a custom duty
about 5% at each one of them, duties often levied
according to the weight or measures.
31. Cont….
EX: As each region had its own system of weights and
measures, this involved time consuming calculation.
The measure of cloth for example was “ ELLE” which in
each region stood for different length. An ‘ELLE’ of textile
material brought in Frankfurt would get you 54.7cm of cloth,
in Mainz 55.1cm, in Nuremburg 65.6cm, in Freiberg 53.5 cm.
* Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic
exchange and growth by new commercial classes, who argued
for the creation of a unified economic territory, allowing
prevention free movement of goods, people and capital.
32. Cont….
* In 1834 a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the
initiation of Prussia and joined by the most of the German
states.
* This Union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the
number of currencies from over 30 to 2.
* Development of railways was done to improve
transportation.
33. A New Conservatism After 1815
“ Opposing to change and innovation is called conservatism”.
Conservative government set-up in 1815 were autocratic,
they did not tolerate criticism and put down activities that
questioned its supremacy.
I) After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 European
governments followed conservatism.
II) They were of opinion that the monarchy, the church,
social hierarch( differences) should be preserved.
III) In 1815, representatives of the European powers-Britain,
Russia, Prussia and Austria who defeated Napoleon met
at Vienna the capital of Hapsburg empire to discuss the
future Europe.
IV) Vienna congress was hosted by Austrian Chancellor
‘Duke Metternich’.
34. Main Features of Treaty of Vienna/
Territorial changes made at the
Congress of Vienna
i) Bourbon dynasty which was ruling in France before the
revolution of 1789, was restored.
ii) France lost the territories which she had annexed under
Napoleon.
iii) A number of states were set-up on the boundaries of
France to prevent French expansion in future.
iv) Kingdom of Netherlands including Belgium was set up in
the North.
v) Prussia was given new territories and portion of Saxony.
vi) Austria gained control over Northern Italy.
vii) Russia gained part of Poland.
viii) German confederation of 39 states that has been set-up by
Napoleon was left untouched.
36. Revolutionaries
* After 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal
nationalists( Revolutionaries) underground. But they did
not remain silent.
* They formed secret societies to spread their ideas and train
other revolutionaries.
* Revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose
monarchical forms and to fight for liberty or freedom.
* One such revolutionary was Giuseppe Mazzini, born in
Genoa in 1807, and became a member of the secret society
of ‘Carbonari.’
38. Cont….
* He was sent into Exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in
Liguria.
HE founded two more secret societies
a) Young Italy in Marseilles.
b) Young Europe in Berne.
* Members of these underground societies were young men from
Poland, France, Italy and German states.
* Mazzini’s relentless ( restless) opposition to monarchy and his
vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives.
* Metternich called him “ the most dangerous enemy of our
social order”.
39. Age of Revolutions ( 1830-1848)
* After the Congress of Vienna, the conservative rulers tried
to consolidate (strengthen) their power.
* In the mean time liberalism and nationalism arose as a new
force, which was associated with revolution.
* In Second half of the 1830s there were revolutions in
France, Belgium, parts of Germany, Italy and provinces of
Ottoman empire, Ireland and Poland.
* The revolutions were led by liberal nationalists and
wealthy middle classes among whom were professionals,
school teachers and members of commercial classes.
* The First Revolution took place in France in July 1830,
then spread to other parts of Europe.
40.
41. Results of the July 1830 Revolution
France
i) The Bourbon king who had been restored to power during the
Congress of Vienna 1815, was now overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries. They installed Louis ‘Philippe’ on the throne as a
constitutional Monarch.
ii) The July revolution in France was a signal for revolutions in other
parts of Europe.
iii) It led to revolution in Brussels, and Belgium broke away from the
United Kingdom of Netherlands.
iv) Metternich was right when he remarked “When France Sneezes the
rest of the Europe catches cold”.
What he meant was whenever there was a revolution in France the
other countries rose in revolt against their respective conservative
government.
42. The Greek War of Independence
* An Event that mobilised nationalists feeling among the
educated elite across the Europe was the Greek War of
Independence.
* Greek was a part of Ottoman Empire since 15th century.
* Poets , artists lauded ( praised) Greece as the cradle of
European civilizations, and mobilised public opinion to
support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
43. Cont….
* The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe
sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the
Greeks, and supported by Western Europeans who had
sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
* English poet ‘Lord Byron’ went to fight in war for Greek
independence where he died of fever in 1824.
* Finally the treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised
Greece as and independent nation.
44. ROMANTICISM
( A cultural movement to install a nationalistic sentiments
among the people, through art, poetry, dance and language.
PAINTING
i) Fredric Sorreau, a French artist prepared a painting which
he called democratic and social republic.
ii) He portrays the statues of liberty as a symbol of freedom
or independence.
iii) He showed the destruction of monarchy and a Utopian
‘vision’( imaginary world/ unification of disintegrated
states into a nation state under a democratic constitution )
45. Cont….
MUSIC AND DANCE:
i ) The German philosopher Johan Gottfried claimed that
German culture was to be discovered among the common
people ( dasvolk).
ii) So, he popularized poetry, folk songs among the people to
create a nationalist sentiments.
iii) Karol Kurppinski, celebrated the national struggles
through music concerts and operas.
iv) Folkdance forms like ‘polonaise and mazurka’ became a
symbol of nationalist sentiments
46. Cont….
LANGUAGE:
i) With the Russian occupation on Poland polish language
was banned, instead Russian language was imposed
everywhere.
ii) But many people of Poland like the clergies, used the
Polish language as a weapon of national resistance.
iii) Polish language was used for church/ social gathering or
religious instructions as a result a large number of people
were sent to jail of Siberia as a punishment.
47. The Romantic Imagination & National
feelings
1. Development of nationalism did not come about only
through wars and territorial expansion.
2. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of
the nation, art and poetry, stories and music helped to
express and shape nationalist feelings.
3. Romantic artist and poets criticised the glorification of
reason and science.
4. In Poland nationalist feelings were kept alive through
music and language (Poland was given to Russia in 1815
at Vienna Congress).
5. Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national struggle
through his opera (Music based Drama) and music,
turning folk dances like Polonaise and Mazurka in to
nationalist symbols.
48. Cont….
6. Language too played an important role in developing
nationalist sentiments.
7. After Russian annexation on Poland the Polish language
was forced out of schools and the Russian language was
imposed everywhere.
8. Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use
language as a weapon of national resistance.
9. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put
in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as
punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
10. German Philosopher Johan Gottfried Herder said, “ True
German culture can be discovered among the common
people, through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances
that express the true spirit of the nation.
49.
50. Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
Europe experienced economic pains around 1830s because of
the following causes:
i) The 1830s were years if great hardship in Europe.
ii) The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous
increase in population all over Europe.
iii) In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than
employment.
iv) Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in
overcrowded slums.
51.
52. Cont….
v) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff
competition from imports of cheep machine-made goods
from England, where industrialization was more advanced
than on the continent. This was especially so in textile
production, which was carried out mainly in homes or
small workshops and was partly mechanized.
vi) Peasants suffered under the burden of feudal dues in those
regions of Europe where aristocracy still enjoyed power.
vii) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to
widespread pauperism in towns and countryside.
53. Popular Revolts
I ) REVOLT IN FRANCE:
a) The year 1848 was one such year where food shortages
and widespread unemployment brought the population of
Paris out on the streets.
b) Louis Philippe ( who was re-installed in 1830s) was
forced to flee ( runaway).
c) National Assembly proclaimed ( declared) Republic.
d) Granted suffrage(voting right) to all adult male above 21,
and guaranteed the right to work.
54. Cont….
II) Revolt in Silesia: 1845
a) Weavers revolted against contractors
for their reduced payments.
b) Silesian village was inhabited with
1800 inhabitants, cotton weaving was
widespread occupation.
c) Contractors took advantage of miserable
conditions of workers by reducing
the prices of the goods.
d) On 4th June(1845) at 2pm crowd of weavers emerged
from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of
their contractors, demanding higher wages.
55.
56. Cont….
e) Group of weavers destroyed many precious things, another
group broke into the store house and plundered it.
f) Due to which contractor ran away to another village.
g) Every village denied shelter to such a person and he
returned after 24 hrs with army.
h) All this resulted in the death of 11 weavers.
57. Revolution in 1848
•Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving
peasants and workers in many European countries in the year
1848, a revolution led by the educated middle class was
under way.
• It brought about the abdication of the monarch and a
republic based on universal male suffrage had been
proclaimed.
•In other parts of Europe where independent nation-state did
not yet exist such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro
Hungarian Empire- men and women of the liberal classes
combined their demands for constitutionalism with national
unification.
• They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push
their demands for the creation of a nation-state on
parliamentary principles.
58. Frankfurt Parliament Germany in 1848
I) In the German regions a large number of political associations
whose members were middle-class professionals ,
businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city
of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all- German National
Assembly.
II) On 18th May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a
festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt
Parliament convened ( held) in the Church of St Paul.
III) They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed
by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
IV) When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to
Friedrich Wilhelm IV, king of Prussia, he rejected and joined
other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
V) In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced
to disband.
59.
60. Role of Women in liberal nationalist
struggle
* A large number of women had participated in the liberal
national movements in Europe.
* Women formed their own political associations, founded
news papers and participated in political meetings and
demonstrations.
* But still women are denied to vote, they were only allowed
to observe happenings in Frankfurt parliament by standing
in visitors gallery.
61. Results of liberal movements 1848
i) Though the Conservative forces suppressed the liberal
movement, but they could not restore the old order.
ii) The monarchs realised that concessions have to be given
to stop revolution.
iii) As a result serfdom ( slavery ) and bonded labour were
abolished in Austria and Russia.
62. Making of Germany/ German
Unification
* Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class
Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions
of the German Confederation into a nation-state, was
however repressed by the large landlords( called Junkers)
of Prussia.
* From then on, Prussia took on the leadership
of the movement for national unification.
* Its Chief Minister, Otto Von Bismarck, was the architect
of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian
army and bureaucracy.
63.
64. Cont….
* Three wars over seven years-with Austria, Denmark and France- ended
in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
* In January 1971, the Prussian king, William I was proclaimed German
emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
* On the bitterly cold morning of 18th January 1871 , an assembly
comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the
army, important Prussian ministers including the Chief minister Otto
Von Bismarck gathered in the unheated hall of Mirrors in the palace of
Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser
William I of Prussia.
* The nation building process in Germany had demonstrated the
dominance of Prussian state power, Prussian measures and practices
often became a model for the rest of Germany.
65.
66. Making of Italy/ Italy Unification
* Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation.
* Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well
as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.
* During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided
into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont,
was ruled by an Italian king Emmanuel II.
* The North was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was
ruled by the Pope and the Southern regions were under the
domination of Bourbon kings of Spain.
* And not acquired one common form and still had many
regional and local variations.
* During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini tried to unite these
regions into Italian Republic.
67. Cont….
* He organised the Youths through secret societies like ‘ Young
Italy’ & Young Europe, and inspired them with revolutionary
ideas. However their efforts were crushed in 1831 & 1848.
* It was clear that the responsibility of uniting Italian states had
to be shouldered by Victor Emmanuel II and to be achieved
through wars.
* In this task Victor Emmanuel II got whole hearted support of his
Chief Minister Cavour, who led movement of Unification.
* Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France Cavour
succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces( North Italy was
merged) in 1859.
69. Cont….
* Now he was able to secure the support of Garibaldi another
great patriot who formed a volunteer army called Red-
Shirts and used them for Italian unification.
* In 1860, Garibaldi led famous expedition to South Italy and
the kingdom of Two Sicilies freed from Bourbon rulers (
South Italy was merged).
* In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united
Italy.
70. A strange Case of Great Britain
* There was no Britain nation before 18th century.
* People residing in the British islands were mainly English,
welsh, Scots and Irish. These ethnic ( communities) groups
had distinct political and social traditions.
* As the English nation grew in wealth and power, it began to
dominate the other islands.
* In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the
result of sudden change or revolution, but with the
incorporation of different islands.
71. Cont….
1. Incorporation of Scotland 2. Incorporation of Ireland
•English nation considered to be an
important nation in navy, trade and
commerce.
• They wanted to annex & merge
Scotland with the British isles.
• With the Act of Union(1707),
formation of ‘United Kingdom of
Great Britain completed.
• After that British dominated the
Scottish people in every aspect.
• The Scottish language and culture
was banned and English language and
culture was promoted.
* Ireland was deeply divided into two
communities the Protestants and
Catholics.
* The English helped the Protestants
to establish dominance over the
Catholics.
* So, the revolt of Catholics led by
Volf Jone was suppressed by the
protestants with the help of British.
* Thus Ireland was finally
incorporated with Great Britain.
A new British nation was formed.
The symbols of new Britain like
National Flag ( UNION JACK)
and national anthem( God save
our noble king) was created.
72. Visualising The Nation
1. Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries found a way of personifying a
nation. In other words they represented a country as if it were a
person.
2. Nations were then portrayed as female figures that did not stand for
any particular woman in real life, rather it sought to give the abstract
idea of the nation a concrete form.
3. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the nation.
4. In France, she was Christened Marianne, a popular Christian name,
which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics
were drawn from those of liberty and Republic- the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade.
73.
74. Cont….
5. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to
remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to
persuade them to identify with it.
6. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
7. Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German
nation, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the
German oak stands for heroism.
75.
76. Nationalism and Imperialism
* Nationalism: Strong feelings for one’s country, and individual’s loyalty
and devotion to the nation and placing of nation above others.
* Imperialism: Refers to the policy of extending the rule and authority of
an empire or nation over foreign countries or holding colonies.
* By the last quarter of 19th century nationalist groups became increasingly
intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war.
* After 1871 nationalist tension mounted in Europe in the area called
Balkan’s. This was the region of geographical and ethnic variation,
comprising, modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia,
Croatia, tec. Whose inhabitants were broadly called Slavs.
77. Cont….
• A large part of the Balkan was under the control of
Ottoman Empire.
• There arouse internal conflicts among the different nationalities and
they voiced protest to assert their independence.
•The Romantic sentiments ( the feeling of love towards their own country
and self identity) made the people understand that they were subjugated
by a foreign power.
• The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and they wanted to
gain more territories at the cost of others.
• Other big European powers like Russia, Germany, England , etc were
keen on controlling the hold of other powers over the Balkans. They too
had their imperialistic ambitions on Balkans.
• This made the situation in Balkans worse and led to First World War in
1914
