This research explores theoretical reasons behind how and why product placements featuring automobile brands may affect consumer behavior, attitude and purchase intent. This study was developed throughout the course of the Spring 2008 semester in a graduate-level Advertising Theories course. by Bruce Jeffers, copyright 2008 via The University of Texas at Austin.

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Driving With the Stars: Using Celebrity Appeal in Product Placements to
Increase Favorable Attitude toward Automobile Brands
Part II — Theoretical Framework
Introduction
Today’s consumers have learned to ignore television commercials, to tune them out,
and with new technologies, even avoid them altogether. With the widespread use of
advancements like Digital Video Recording (DVR) and the Internet, many consumers are
“skipping” TV commercials or simply not watching as much television. With these
obstacles in the way of television advertising today, how can a company or brand still
deliver an effective message to its target? Product placement is one solution.
The use of product placement is quickly spreading and evolving to combat today’s
indifference toward television commercials. The technique of product placement shows
real brands or products within the entertainment programming itself, rather than in a
commercial during a program break. In most typical product placements, company logos
are displayed on-screen for a few seconds, thereby exposing viewers to the brand without
interrupting the program with a commercial — the advertising message is streamlined into
the enjoyable entertainment.
A previous literature review of product placement research has proven that product
placement is more effective than traditional television commercials (Balasubramanian,
Karrh, & Patwardhan, 2006; Brennan, 2001; Hosea, 2007; Jin & Villegas, 2007; Patterson,
2006; Stratton, 1992). This paper will further develop the study by bringing in established
theoretical models from communication and psychology research.

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Research Question
“To what extent does the product placement of automobiles in action genre
programming (including TV, films, and video games) serve as endorser credibility and
thereby affect attitude toward the respective automobile brands in the minds of young men
ages 18 to 34?”
The following report will analyze the effectiveness of product placement in regard
to attractiveness and credibility theories. This paper will also begin to explore how
product placements can be considered celebrities or endorsers for their respective brands
and how this appeal will affect the attitude of the viewer.
The Source Attractiveness Model
The Source Attractiveness model (McGuire, 1985) comes from social psychology
research but has high relevance in communication and advertising applications as well. In
fact, McGuire originally devised the model for it to be used in the study of personal
communication (McCracken, 1989), and other researchers have recently discovered its
value in the study of endorsements in advertising (Goldsmith, Lafferty, & Newell, 2000).
McGuire’s theory says that the persuasive effectiveness of a message depends heavily on
the attractiveness of the source. His research found that viewers perceive characteristic
and cultural differences among sources of information. These differences led to profound
variations in how appealing and therefore persuasive the sources were (McGuire, 1985).
There are three constructs used to measure the degree of attractiveness. They are
“likability”, “familiarity,” and “similarity.” Likability is defined as the affection for the
source based on the source’s physical appearance and behavior. Familiarity is the level of

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knowledge about the source as a result of past exposures. Similarity is the perceived
resemblance between the source of the message and the viewer or receiver. The source
attractive model states that the more a source is liked by, known by, and/or similar to the
viewer, the more attractive and, as a result, persuasive the source will be to that particular
viewer (McCracken, 1989; McGuire, 1985). Conversely, if a source has low attractiveness
or is deemed unattractive, the level of persuasion is very low or even nonexistent. The
independent variables are the three constructs: likability, familiarity, and similarity; the
dependent variables in this theory are the degree of attitude change and persuasion.
Goldsmith, Lafferty, and Newell (2000) later applied McGuire’s theory to research
of endorsers in advertising: they incorporated source attractiveness into the creation of
their construct of celebrity credibility. Their study will be discussed in further detail later
in this paper, but it is important to note here that they considered source attractiveness to
be one of the main determinants of a celebrity’s degree of credibility and persuasiveness.
Another recent product placement study (Yang, 2007) was also influenced by the
source attractiveness theory. The results of this study showed that higher levels of product
involvement with main characters (attractive sources) led to greater attitude change
among viewers. Specifically, when a product was used by a main character, the audience
expressed more positive attitudes toward the brand than when the product was just in the
background, not used by a main character.
The previous examples given are a strength of McGuire’s model: that we are able to
evoke his source attractiveness theory to justify the use of endorsements in advertising.
Companies use well-liked celebrities to promote their products and services; viewers are
more likely to be persuaded by these messages because they come from more attractive

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sources. The model is not without its weaknesses, however. Attractiveness is very
subjective and will certainly vary from person to person. An endorser who is attractive to
one individual may be highly unattractive to another. Additionally, attractiveness is a
qualitative measure, posing two problems: 1) it would be hard to quantify results, and 2)
respondents may have difficulties or reservations in accurately wording and describing its
specific effects on their attitudes.
For the purposes of this research question, the source attractiveness model is again
being transferred into advertising study. I will apply the constructs of likability, familiarity,
and similarity to the product placement of automobiles. This will be evaluated in two
ways: 1) the attractiveness of the actor or actress who is driving the vehicle, and 2) the
attractiveness of the actual automobile; in other words, considering the vehicle itself to be
a celebrity that can be deemed attractive. This research will measure how the likability,
familiarity, and similarity of actors and vehicles will affect viewers’ attitude toward the
respective auto brands.
A recent article in a trade magazine (Hosea, 2007) highlights how some automakers
have already begun featuring their cars as “celebrities” in video games, utilizing part (2) of
the modified source attractiveness theory just discussed. Companies such as Mitsubishi
and Nissan have placed their logos and sports cars in popular racing games; in this virtual
environment, the cars themselves are the stars and the center of attention. This method of
product placement has increased levels of interest in these sports cars among men in the
gaming audience. This article even gives a few examples of male consumers who have
actually bought sports cars after seeing and using them in the video games, showing that
source attractiveness can even be persuasive enough to influence purchase decisions.

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The Source Credibility Model
The Source Credibility model (as cited in Severin & Tankard, 2001) was developed
by Hovland and Weiss in 1951 as a result of a communication experiment that observed the
effects of a source’s credibility on the acceptance of the content of a message. In their
experiment, identical messages were presented to two groups. One message came from a
low-credibility source (one held in low esteem at that time), the other from a high-
credibility source (one held in high esteem at that time).
Even though the messages were identical, the researchers found a greater attitude
change and degree of persuasion among those who received the message from the high-
credibility source (as cited in Severin & Tankard, 2001). This led Hovland and Weiss to the
conclusion that became their theory: the higher a source’s credibility is perceived to be, the
more likely the receiver is to be persuaded by the message and the greater the receiver’s
change in attitude will be. Essentially, higher source credibility signifies a more effective
message (as cited in McCracken, 1989).
The source credibility model employs two main constructs: “trustworthiness” and
“expertise.” Trustworthiness is measured by the honesty and believability of the source.
Expertise is defined by the knowledge of and experience with the subject (as cited in
Goldsmith, Lafferty, & Newell, 2000). The independent variables are those two constructs;
the dependent variables are the amount of attitude change and persuasion. A source’s
perceived degree of trustworthiness and expertise determine its level of credibility.
Corporate Credibility
Goldsmith, Lafferty, and Newell (2000) included the source credibility constructs of
trustworthiness and expertise, as well as McGuire’s (1985) concept of source

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attractiveness, in their formulation of a new construct of corporate credibility. Their study
evaluated how the credibility of celebrities and the credibility of the brand or company
affected viewers’ attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention
of the advertised product. Their findings show that both types of credibility — endorser
and corporation —influence attitude change and purchase intention, but corporate
credibility had a much stronger impact on these responses (Goldsmith, Lafferty, & Newell,
2000). In application to product placement, this study suggests that the reputation of the
brand will affect the placement’s persuasiveness more profoundly than will the credibility
of the celebrity who uses the product.
Similar to the source attractiveness model discussed earlier, a strength of Hovland’s
and Weiss’s source credibility theory is that we are able to use it as a measurement of
endorser effectiveness in advertising. Through their research and other subsequent
studies, we have learned that viewers are more likely to be persuaded by celebrities and
corporations who possess higher levels of perceived credibility. Their model has it
weaknesses too, however. Perceptions of credibility are very subjective and will certainly
vary among viewers. An endorser who appears credible to one individual may not seem as
credible to another. Secondly, credibility is a qualitative statistic that poses problems in
quantifying results and in getting accurate verbal answers from respondents.
As done with source attractiveness, the source credibility model will also be
transferred into further advertising study. For the purposes of this research question, I will
apply the constructs of trustworthiness and expertise to the product placement of
automobiles. This will provide models for how both endorser and corporate credibility will
affect viewers’ attitudes toward auto brands seen in product placements.

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Meaning Transfer Model
In studying how consumers respond to celebrity endorsements, McCracken (1989)
felt the earlier theories of source attractiveness (McGuire, 1985) and source credibility
(Hovland & Weiss, 1951) did not completely capture the factors by which endorsers are
evaluated in the human psyche. He argues that celebrity influence is “richer and more
complicated than just attractive or credible individuals” (p. 313). Celebrities have a distinct
personality and their own lifestyle and cultural meanings attached to them, all of which
affect how consumers receive and are persuaded by celebrity endorsements. These deeper
meanings cannot be represented merely by the labels of attractiveness or credibility. For
example, he notes that Audrey Hepburn and Cher are two very different women, owning
two very different identities. While they are both attractive and credible sources to many
viewers, they possess two entirely separate types of attractiveness and credibility
(McCracken, 1989). The Meaning Transfer model accounts for this distinction in meanings
while still incorporating the initial constructs of source attractiveness and credibility.
McCracken’s model has three phases in which meaning is transferred. It starts with
the “Culture” phase: objects, persons, and situations all contain significant cultural
meanings. These meanings are first passed from popular culture to celebrities based on
roles they are in or have previously played. In the second phase, labeled the
“Endorsement,” the meanings are transferred from the celebrity to the product he/she is
endorsing. The meanings are again shifted in the final step, the “Consumption” stage, from
the product to the consumer who buys that product. Thus, at the end of the process, the
constructs of attractiveness, credibility, and cultural meanings have all influenced the
consumer’s purchase decision (McCracken, 1989).

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McCracken (1989) believes that consumers do not always just buy products — they
also desire to acquire the cultural meanings that have been transferred from the celebrity
endorsers to the products. Using this insight, movie product placements are excellent,
entertaining ways to seamlessly attach cultural meaning to celebrities and products.
A strength of the meaning transfer process is that it ties together all the theories and
constructs previously discussed in this paper: source attractiveness, source credibility, and
cultural meanings. The new model that I will construct for measuring product placement
effectiveness will be strongly influenced by McCracken’s (1989) initial work. However, the
meaning transfer process only moves in one direction: meanings move from phase one to
two to three only in that order. It does not consider the ways in which consumers (the
third phase) can influence culture and cultural meanings (the first phase). This is one of
the model’s weaknesses.
Match-Up Hypothesis
One additional concept that has bears on the effectiveness of endorsements and
product placement is the match-up hypothesis (Kahle & Homer, 1985). This hypothesis
contends that the celebrity or endorser must fit or “match” the product for the
endorsement to be most effective. Several research studies (Kamins, 1990; Patterson,
2006; Premeaux, 2005) have confirmed the necessity of celebrity to product congruence
discussed in this hypothesis. The findings essentially show that if consumers do not
perceive an endorser to fit well with the brand or product, the credibility and
persuasiveness of that endorsement is very low. In some instances, these celebrity

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mismatches were so severe that they led to absolutely no change in attitude toward the
brand (Kamins, 1990) or to viewer skepticism toward the message (Premeaux, 2005).
One strength of the match-up hypothesis is that it provides helpful and more
specific guidelines for the popular advertising trend of using celebrity endorsers. However,
many factors influence how viewers perceive a celebrity’s appeal, including those
discussed earlier such as attractiveness, credibility, expertise, and trustworthiness. A
weakness of this hypothesis is that it does not specifically define how such qualities are
considered in determining how well celebrities match the products they endorse.
To marketers in product placement, this hypothesis suggests that automobiles
should be placed in scenes that are considered relevant or appropriate to the vehicle’s use
and image. For example, a fast sports car “matches” a high-speed, intensely-paced action
scene; an off-road vehicle “matches” a scene set in the woods or mountains. These
matching placements will greatly improve the likelihood of viewer attitude change.
Moving Forward
As stated earlier in this paper, the next step in this research will be to construct a
new theoretical model of how product placement affects viewers’ attitudes based on
attractiveness and credibility appeals. Since none of the existing models discussed can
individually answer the inquiry about automobile product placement, a new one will be
designed. The new model will incorporate constructs from McGuire’s (1985) source
attractiveness theory, Hovland’s and Weiss’s (1951) source credibility theory, McCracken’s
(1989) meaning transfer process, and it will also factor in celebrity relevance from the
match-up hypothesis (Kahle & Homer, 1985). The goal is to create a realistic model

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derived from proven theoretical research and based on the psychology of endorser
evaluation that will provide guidelines for how product placement can be designed most
effectively. Such a model can be used by marketing practitioners to maximize the appeal
and persuasiveness of automobile product placements in entertainment programming,
providing a viable solution to the growing indifference toward today’s TV commercials.

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