Presentation by Dr. Kwadwo Asenso-Okyere (IFPRI) at Wheat for Food Security in Africa conference, Oct 8, 2012, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

1. Food Security in Africa:
Challenges and Policy Options to Ensure Africa’s Future
Kwadwo Asenso-Okyere,
Director, Eastern and Southern Africa Region, International Food Policy Research Institute
Introduction
The 1974 United Nations World Food Conference, held in Rome, defined food security as “the
availability at all times of adequate world supplies of basic foodstuffs, primarily cereals, so as to
avoid acute food shortages in the event of widespread crop failures or natural disasters, sustain a
steady expansion of production and reduce fluctuations in production and prices” (FAO 1974).
However, since 1974, the concept of food security has undergone numerous transformations.
During the two decades after the World Food Conference, the thinking on food security
underwent three paradigm shifts: “(a) from the global and the national to the household and the
individual, (b) from a food first perspective to a livelihood perspective, and (c) from objective
indicators to subjective perception.” These shifts are discernible when comparing how food
security was redefined through these years.
Nearly ten years after the 1974 Conference, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO 1983) published a reappraisal of world food security concepts in which food
security was defined as “ensuring that all people at all times have both physical and economic
access to the basic food that they need.” Through its focus on access to food, this definition
balances out the supply-side dominant understanding of food security during the 1970s. This
emphasis on access is also accompanied by a significant shift from the global to the individual
level. These changes remain central to subsequent revisions of the food security concept. For
example, three years later the World Bank (1986) released the following definition of food
security: “Access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” With this
definition, the conceptualization of food security shifts further to incorporate food use and
stability as fundamental dimensions of the nature of food security. Food provides energy for
growth, physical activity and basic human functions. Children require food for the development
of their future potential and adults require food to develop the full range of their capabilities and
function at their best.
The widely accepted and cited 1996 World Food Summit definition of food security, which
prevails as the current thinking on food security, succinctly builds on the versions that precede it:
“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life” (FAO 2006). This definition underscores four main dimensions of food
security: food availability, food access, food use, and the stability of these conditions. Food
security is a multidisciplinary concept which includes economic, political, demographic, social
(discriminatory food access), cultural (eating habits), and technical aspects.
In 1974, the United Nations Food Conference adopted the Universal Declaration on the
Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition. In 1976, the International Covenant on Economic,
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2. Social and Cultural Rights entered into force including an article on the right to adequate food as
follows: “Every man, woman, and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and
malnutrition in order to develop fully and maintain their physical and mental faculties”. Some
African countries have incorporated the right to food in their constitution.
Status of Food Security in Africa (Hunger and Malnutrition)
Nutritional problems include: (i) protein-energy-malnutrition, (ii) micronutrient deficiencies, and
(iii) over-weight. There is a popular saying, “We are what we eat”. Vulnerability to malnutrition
depends on what we eat.
The United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that nearly one billion
people go hungry every day in the world. More than one in four Africans – close to 218 million
people in 2006-2008 – are undernourished, and food security is precarious. According to the
2011 Global Hunger Index which is the average of three indicators, the proportion of the
population that is undernourished, the prevalence of underweight children under five years old,
and proportion of children dying before age five, Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) is home to 26
countries with “extremely alarming” or “alarming” scores. Economic performance and hunger
are inversely correlated.
It seems that many African countries may not be able to achieve the Millennium Development
Goal 1 which seeks to reduce to half the proportion of the population experiencing hunger and
poverty by 2015. Hunger and malnutrition in Africa have led to low birth weight for children,
low scores for weight-for-height (wasting), height-for-age (stunting) and low body mass index
(for adults). More than 90 percent of the world’s stunted children live in Africa and Asia, where
rates of stunting are 40 percent and 36 percent respectively (Grebmer et al 2010). Even in
situations where there has been massive food aid, food security has not been maintained on a
sustainable manner. Food aid as a social protection measure may be good as a coping mechanism
for transient hunger but does not ensure long-term food security.
It is an irony that in a continent with high levels of underweight (body mass index less than
18.5), there is also a growing number of people who are overweight or obese (body mass index
greater than 25) – the double burden of undernutrition and overweight in Africa Figure 1). In
Uganda, one in every third woman is over-weight and this phenomenon is not only urban based.
Rural areas in Uganda have experienced a higher percentage increase in overweight.
Surprisingly, overweight/obesity is increasingly occurring among lower income households.
(http://who.int/nutgrowthdb/database). The speed of nutrition transition is increasing the
likelihood of stunting and over-weight co-existing in the same households. Given the high level
of underweight in some countries, food waste in the form of excessive nutrition which is
contributing to the increase in the obesity epidemic appears extremely unacceptable.
Figure 1. Prevalence of overweight by country
Hunger and undernourishment form a vicious circle which is often “passed on” from generation
to generation: The children of impoverished parents are often born underweight and are less
resistant to disease (von Braun, Arnold and Preub, 2007). Adults who were undernourished as
children are physically and intellectually less productive, attain a lower level of education,
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3. ultimately earn less money, and are more frequently ill than adults who enjoy a normal dietary
intake as children.
Research conducted by IFPRI, Cornell University and World Vision in Haiti found that the
earlier and the longer food supplementation is provided before the child reaches two years of
age, the greater the benefits not only on growth in early life, but also on long-term physical,
cognitive, and reproductive performance (Rural21, 2008). In Guatemala, boys who participated
in an early childhood intervention that improved their nutrition during the first two to three years
of life had 46 percent higher wages in adulthood than those who did not participate in the
intervention (Hoddinott et al. 2008). Thus the first two years of life are crucial period for a
child’s physical and cognitive development. Any compromise to availability of food for
households will therefore have long term consequences for human capacity development.
Recent evidence shows that the window of opportunity for improving child nutrition spans the
period from -9 to +24 months (that is, 1,000 days between conception and a child’s second
birthday) (Grebmer et al 2010). This is the period when children are in greatest need of adequate
amounts of nutritious food, preventive and curative health care, and age-appropriate care
practices for healthy development and when interventions are most likely to prevent
undernutrition from setting in. After age two, the effects of undernutrition are largely
irreversible.
From the time of ancient Rome to the Middle Ages and for many centuries thereafter, people,
especially the less wealthy – spend most of their days on the street and enjoyed ready-prepared
foods or snacks purchased in shops or from street vendors. Street food represents practical, low-
cost foods which are increasingly linked to the culture of the countries in which they originated.
The spread of street food has been associated with urbanization, and has become an essential
component of the food system and to a small degree, contributes to solving the problem of food
security. It is a cheap and functional way of satisfying the basic nutritional needs of low income
populations. Street food has become very popular in many African countries and there are many
people whose source of meals is street food. Street food is an indisputable source of income for
large numbers of farmers. In Zambia, for example, the street food market generates revenues of
100 million dollars and employs close to 16,000 people (typically women with a very low
educational level). In Africa, street food supplies the means for 80 percent of urban population to
feed itself and represents around 40 percent of food spending
(http://barillacfn.com/en/news/street-food/).
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4. Figure1. Prevalence of overweight by country
Ethiopia
Madagascar
DRC
Rwanda
Malawi
Mozabique
Uganda
United R.…
Zambia
Comoros
Kenya
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Lesotho
Swaziland
RSA
0 20 40 60
BMI>25 for women
Source: http://who.int/nutgrowthdb/database
Causes of food insecurity
Low productivity and production. Domestic food production accounts for about 80 percent of
Africa’s food consumption (UNEP 2002). Increasing agricultural productivity can increase food
availability and access as well as rural incomes. The large gap between potential and current crop
yields makes increased food production attainable. Africa’s low agricultural productivity has
many causes, including scarce and scant knowledge on improved practices, low use of improved
seeds and breeds, low fertilizer use, inadequate irrigation, conflict, absence of strong institutions,
ineffective policies, lack of incentives, and prevalence of diseases. Climate change could
substantially reduce yields in a continent where only 4 percent of cropland is irrigated, compared
with a global average of 20 percent.
Agricultural output has not kept pace with population increase in Africa, currently at a rate of 2.4
percent. For instance, between 1965 and 1990, agricultural production grew at an annual rate of
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5. 1.7 percent, while the average annual population growth rate was 2.8 percent. Food imports
including food aid in Africa have increased substantially to offset the deficiencies, with food
imports reaching about $30 billion annually in the last few years. If the situation does not
change, the food gap is projected to increase to more than nine times the present gap by 2020
(Agyare-Kwabi 2003), and this will drive up prices and aggravate hunger and malnutrition.
Inequality. In many African homes food is prepared to satisfy the father or husband at the
detriment of women and children. The detrimental situation of women and children is
particularly serious, as well as the situation among female teenagers, who receive less food than
their male counterparts in the same households (Sasson 2012).
In Africa, women grow most of the food, and process, purchase, and prepare food for their
families, yet they have restrictions on the use of land and inputs such as improved seeds and
fertilizer, and limited access to information. Customary and formal tenure systems have
marginalized women’s rights in favor of more limited user rights. This tenure insecurity makes
women less likely to invest time and resources in land or adopt environmentally sustainable
farming practices. Meeting the growing food needs in Africa puts premium on the capabilities
and resources of African women. Unequal rights and obligations within the household, as well as
limited time and financial resources, often block women’s potential in agriculture (UNDP 2012).
Small farm sizes. Smaller farm sizes lower levels of surplus farm production, which in turn is
likely to exacerbate households’ capital constraints and depress their demand for purchased
inputs and new technologies (Jayne and Muyanga 2011). There is evidence about the existence
of positive relationship between farm size and farm income in agrarian rural settings. Using data
from Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Mozambique, and Zambia, Jayne et al (2003) showed that
increases of farm size from below 0.5 hectare to about 2.5 hectares (when adjusting for mean
family size) are associated with large increases in household income. Given that most
smallholder farms are well below 2.5 hectares in size, it is likely that measures to promote access
to additional land may reap very high payoffs in terms of rural poverty reduction. Using data
from Ethiopia, Diao et al (2005) also showed that food deficit areas had mean farm holding
(hectares per household) of 0.57 hectare, food balanced areas was 0.94 hectare and food surplus
areas was 1.38 hectares. This shows that as farm holding increased households moved from food
deficit to food surplus. Thus increasing farm size has positive impact on household income and
food security. It is when the returns from the farm enterprise increase would farmers be able to
make the necessary investments to transform subsistence to commercial agriculture and play a
major role in the agriculture value chain and reap additional returns for improvements in the
farm and the livelihood of the farm household.
Disease and health. Poor health affects agricultural production and food consumption. It lessens
the farmer’s ability to innovate, experiment, and operationalize changes in agricultural systems.
A farmer who is ill cannot attend a farmer field school or interact with an extension officer to
learn about new technologies and improved practices, and so may lack the knowledge to
innovate. Experimentation on technology adoption and improved practices would be too costly
for a farm household that is spending a lot of money on healthcare and is losing labor to illness.
The nutrition and health status of adults affect the duration of labor force participation and the
intensity of work effort. Poor health will result in a loss of days worked or in reduced worker
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6. capacity, and is likely to reduce output (Antle and Pingali,1994). Malnutrition and disease
patterns influence market demand for food quantity, quality, diversity, and the price people are
able or willing to pay. Limited access to food may occur in a household if individuals are too ill
or overburdened to produce or earn money to buy food (Keverenge-Ettyang et al., 2010). High
rates of preventable diseases, viz. HIV and AIDS, malaria are among the major factors leading to
high proportion of people who cannot meet their calorie requirements.
Absence or non-functional markets (local, regional and international). One incentive for
increased production is access to markets. It is unfortunate that markets in Africa are not well
developed and so lacks integration. Often food will be in abundance at production centers when
there is scarcity at consumption centers. Thus differences in prices at the two centers cannot be
explained by simple arbitrage. Border rigidities and uncoordinated standards make it
cumbersome for food to move from one country to another. This discourages innovation in
agriculture and contributes to the low levels of productivity.
Staple foods with low nutrients. African countries have diverse staple foods ranging from a large
number of root crops (yam, cocoyam, cassava, potato) to large number of cereals (rice, sorghum,
millet, maize, teff, barley, wheat) and plantain and banana. The wide range of staples allows for
substitutability when relative prices change but the drawback is cultural and taste preferences for
particular staples crops. Many of the staples have low nutrients (vitamins and micronutrients)
and so without diversifying the diet many people do not get the required nutrients for a healthy
life.
Poverty. Economic performance and hunger are inversely correlated. Countries with high levels
of gross national income (GNI) per capita tend to have low GHI scores, and countries with low
levels of GNI per capita tend to have high GHI scores, holding other factors constant (Grebmer
et al 2010). Poverty and food shortages are the main catalysts of food insecurity in the world. In
2004, 121 million Africans south of the Sahara lived on less than a meagre US$ 0.50 a day (ultra
poor). People living on less than US$ 1.00 per day are unable to pay the prices they would need
to buy all of the staple food they require, and meat and fish consumption for many poor Africans
is a luxury. Although the share of the population living in extreme poverty in SSA declined by
more than 10% to 48% between 1999 and 2008, SSA still has the highest concentration of the
ultra-poor in the world (Ahmed et al. 2007). Despite the rapid economic growth rate in SSA over
the past decade, there is historical evidence that this has not been converted into poverty
reduction as effectively as in other developing regions like East Asia and the Pacific.
Poverty constrains the ability of farming households to invest in productive assets and
agricultural technologies, resulting in insufficient agricultural productivity.
Food Waste. FAO estimates that the global food waste is about 1.3 billion tons, equivalent to
about a third of the food production intended for human consumption. In developing countries,
the most significant losses are concentrated at the first part of the food supply chain, primarily
due to limits in the cultivation, harvesting, and preservation techniques, or due to a lack of
adequate transportation and storage infrastructures. Waste in the home arises due to the
difficulties consumers have with correctly interpreting food labeling; the preparation of over-
generous portions and dishing more than can be consumed; mistakes made at the purchase
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7. planning stage; and foods not being preserved appropriately. In agriculture, the food losses are
largely attributable to harvesting methods; handling procedures; storage facilities and marketing
practices; decay and infestation by pests; fungi and microbes; and general mismanagement of
grain stocks.
Food waste is a phenomenon that raises serious questions form a social point of view. Given the
problem of malnutrition that is affecting around one billion people worldwide, the increase in
food waste, even in the form of excessive nutrition (contributing to the increase in obesity
epidemic), appears extremely unacceptable.
Street Food. Although street food provides food security for many urban dwellers, the major
downside of it is the threat of compromising with food safety. In terms of food safety, there are a
number of areas in the production and distribution process which arouse concern. These involve
the production process, point-of-sale hygiene and the quality of ingredients that often promote
contamination through organic and inorganic pollutants and may lead to ill health after
consuming the food (http://barillacfn.com/en/news/street-food/)
Conflict, war and political instability. Africa south of the Sahara is responsible for 88 percent of
the death toll resulting from global conflict between 1990 and 2007, in addition to over 9 million
refugees and internally displaced people. In contrast to the case of conflict-ridden countries,
countries that have ended their conflicts, such as Rwanda and Uganda, have seen substantial
economic recovery as well as a reduction in the prevalence of extreme poverty and malnutrition.
The largest deterioration in GHI in 2010 was seen in the Democratic Republic of Congo largely
because of conflict and political instability. When there is conflict food production is interrupted
and even food aid cannot be transported to where it is needed and distributed to those who need
it. Violent conflicts have thwarted all efforts to establish food and nutrition security in Central
and East Africa. Violent conflicts, as well as ethnic unrest involving fights over water and
grazing resources, the stealing of women and livestock and quarrels over border lines, have
contributed to the displacement of people, disruption of transportation and market transactions
and subsequently, lack of access to food.
Rising or volatile food prices. Higher food prices cut into the budgets of poor consumers but
could raise the incomes of poor producers if they produce more than they consume. In many
African countries, food accounts for over half of household expenditures, and increased food
prices seriously reduce access to food. Volatile food prices, however, harm both consumers and
producers by increasing uncertainty and making it difficult for households to budget for food
consumption and to plan for production.
Weather shocks. In the Horn of Africa in 2011, severe drought due to consecutive poor rainy
seasons triggered a widespread crises in the region that was especially catastrophic in Somalia.
Many parts of the Horn, especially the lowland areas, saw large crop losses, significant depletion
of grazing resources, skyrocketing food prices, and substantial livestock and human mortality.
More than 13 million people, principally pastoralists and farmers, were affected and food and
nutrition security was severely undermined. Vulnerable groups such as women and children
experienced acute food insecurity and undernutrition (IFPRI, 2011). A similar situation was
experienced in the Sahel in west Africa in the same year but with moderate consequences.
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8. Policy Recommendations
1. Africa’s agricultural growth during the last few years have emanated from area expansion
instead of increases in land productivity. This is important given growing concerns about
deforestation and climate change. Investments in yield increasing technology and
extension and advisory services and increasing access to production inputs and output
markets by farmers are important in achieving sustainable productivity growth in
agriculture. To increase investments in agriculture African countries should endeavor to
allocate 10 percent of their budget to agriculture as required by the Comprehensive
African Agriculture Development Program (CAADP).
2. It has been established that as farm size increased food insecurity reduced which
pinpoints to the need to expand farms from the current smallholdings while at the same
time increasing productivity.
3. Strengthen gender equality in land rights and access to other production assets and
resources by getting rid of entrenched sociocultural attitudes and strengthen rights for
women under constitutional, family and inheritance law. As land rights are secured,
biodiversity and soil conservation should be promoted to get the best out of the land.
4. Attention must be given to livestock as they tend to increase the asset base of farmers and
provide additional income for the household. However sustainable livestock production
depends upon availability of pasture and water for the animals. Efficient use of water and
integrated watershed and pasture management should be pursued. Other household asset
building programs tend to improve the resilience of household members to shocks and
provide working capital for productive activities.
5. The connection of food security to health and labor productivity makes it imperative for
all countries to pay particular attention to policies and programs that ensure household
food security for their citizens. Access to healthcare can be enhanced through a health
insurance scheme so that higher productivity is not unnecessarily lost to illness that can
be treated.
6. Efforts to biofortify African staple crops should be intensified and advocacy carried out
for their general acceptance.
7. National and regional markets should be developed to provide incentives for innovation
and increased productivity and production. There must be regional harmonization of
standards and regulations and acceptance of inspection of goods at the origin so that
goods can move easily through different national borders.
8. Countries of the world should avoid trade restrictions (export and import bans) and allow
food to trade liberally. When there is a shortage of production in any part of Africa,
public stocks should be released and consumer subsidies provided to contain the problem
of rising food prices.
9. Countries and/or regions should establish strategic food reserves (especially for grains
and pulses) which should be used in food emergency situations.
10. To detect an eminent food shortage and combat its disastrous effects early warning
systems should be developed by countries and regional economic communities to
monitor the food security situation on a continuous basis.
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9. 11. Index-based weather insurance schemes for crops and livestock should be investigated as
a solution to covariance risk in agriculture, especially at a time when there is so much
weather variation and extreme weather events.
12. When there is a disaster the international community should act fast with emergency food
assistance before the situation develops into a humanitarian calamity.
13. In situations of chronic food insecurity, social protection programs which include food
and cash transfers (conditional or unconditional) and school feeding programs should be
instituted to assist the poor and vulnerable overcome hunger and malnutrition.
14. It has been recognized that even in situations where there has been massive food aid, food
security has not been maintained on a sustainable manner. It should therefore be noted
that food aid as a social protection measure may be good as a coping mechanism for
transient hunger but does not ensure long-term food security and so should not be used as
a substitute for policies and programs that would put agriculture on a sustained growth
path.
15. Food waste should be avoided from production through storage and distribution to
consumption. Appropriate harvesting and grain threshing equipment should be used at the
farm level to reduce losses. Farm produce should be handled properly to reduce post-
harvest losses. Processing should be done in such a way that losses are minimal.
Appropriate vehicles should be used to transport food and in that respect transport
infrastructure should be developed and maintained. People should avoid large portions of
food that they cannot eat to avoid wasting of food.
16. Food security depends on using food properly. This includes eating a diverse diet;
avoiding nutrient losses during food preparation; having clean water and adequate
sanitation and energy to ensure basic hygiene for food preparation, storage and
consumption.
17. Good practices for street food must be defined that are capable of mitigating the harmful
effects without eliminating the opportunities it offers in terms of food security and
creating value for communities. Standards must be drawn up for the preparation and sale
of street food and there must be regular inspection by community health officials to
ensure that practitioners adhere to them.
18. To reduce child undernutrition, governments should invest in effective nutrition
interventions targeted to mothers and children during the window of opportunity (from
conception to two years of age of the child). These interventions should focus on
improving maternal nutrition during pregnancy and lactation, promoting sound
breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices, providing essential micronutrients,
and adopting salt iodization, while ensuring appropriate immunization.
Ante-natal programs for pregnant women which include nutrition education for the baby
when it is born and growth monitoring for babies after birth should be important aspects
of national nutrition programs.
19. Education, and significantly education of women, has positive effect on household food
security. Knowledge and information have become important for increasing agricultural
productivity and production, post-harvest management, and access to markets which
would in turn improve the food security and incomes of farm households. However, the
knowledge is better assimilated and adopted for innovations when the farmers (and their
spouses) are educated. Therefore policies and programs to improve household food
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10. security should include provision of educational facilities and teachers, and promotion of
school enrolment, attendance and achievement.
Conclusion
The high food prices experienced in 2007-2008 and 2010-2011 have moved food security to the
top of the global development debate. In addition, the threat of a changing climate and rising
world consumption of grain-intensive animal proteins, and a sense of urgency about the global
food system render an opportunity for achieving food security in Africa. The good news is that
there has been a renaissance in interest in agricultural development in Africa with 29 countries
having signed their CAADP compacts as of October 2011, with a well defined program for
agricultural development. Growth of the agricultural sector has a large impact on poverty
reduction, and creates income opportunities for the poor in both the farm and nonfarm economy
while lowering food prices for both rural and urban consumers.
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