1. Motivation

2. Motivation defined
Motivation refers to the individual forces that account for the
direction, level, and persistence of a persons effort expended at
work.
Direction refers to an individuals choice when presented with
number of possible alternatives.
Level refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth.
Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a
given action.

3. Types of motivation theories
Content theories of motivation focus primarily on individual
needs that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that we
feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. The content theories try
to explain work behaviors based on pathways to need satisfaction
and the influence of blocked needs.
Process theories of motivation focus on the thought or
cognitive processes that take place within the minds of people and
that influence their behavior. Whereas a content approach may
identify job security as an important individual need a process
approach would probe further to identify why the person decides
to behave in certain ways relative to available rewards and work
opportunities.

4. Needs theories of motivation
Content theories suggest that motivation results from our
attempts to satisfy important needs. They suggest that managers
should be able to understand individual needs and to create work
environments that respond positively to them.
Hierarchy of needs theory
The concept of a needs ―hierarchy‖ assumes that some needs are
more important than others and must be satisfied before the other
needs can serve as motivators.

5. Figure 5.1 Higher-order and Lower-order needs in Maslow's
hierarchy of needs.
Higher-order Self-Actualization
needs Highest need level; need to fulfill oneself; to grow and
use abilities to fullest and most creative extent
Esteem
Need for esteem of others; respect, prestige, recognition,
need for self-esteem, personal sense of competence,
mastery
Lower-order Social
needs Need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in ones
relationships with other persons
Safety
Need for security , protection, and stability in the physical
and interpersonal events of day-to-day life
Physiological
Most basic of all human needs; need for biological
maintenance; need for food, water, and sustenance

6. If anything, the needs are more likely to operate in a flexible rather
than in a strict, step-by sequence.
Some research suggests that Higher-order needs (esteem and
self-actualization) tend to become more important than Lower-
needs (psychological, safety, and social) as individuals order
move up the corporate ladder.
Social needs tend to take on higher importance in more collectivist
societies, such as Mexico and Pakistan, than in individualistic
ones like the united states.

7. ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory is also based on needs, but it
differs from Maslow's theory in three respects.
First, ERG Theory collapses Maslow's five needs categories into
three:
Existence needs, desires for physiological and material well-
being; relatedness needs, desires for satisfying interpersonal
relationships; growth needs, desires for continued personal
growth and development.
Second, ERG Theory emphasizes a unique frustration-regression
component.
Third, unlike Maslow's theory, ERG theory contends that more

8. Acquired Needs Theory
The TAT is a projective technique that asks people to view pictures and
write stories about what they see
McClelland identified themes in the Tat stories that he believed
correspond to needs that are acquired over time as a result of our life
experiences.
Need for achievement (nach)
Is the desire to do something better or more efficiently to solve
problems, or to master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation (nAff)
Is the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with
others.
Need for power (nPower)
Is the desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be
responsible for others.

9. Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg took yet another approach to examining the link
between individuals needs and motivation.
Two-factor theory, also known as the motivator-hygiene theory, because
this theory identifies two different factors as primary causes of job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfaction, and they are
associated the job context or work setting. That is, they relate more to
the environment in which people work than to the nature of the work
itself.
The two-factor theory suggests that job dissatisfaction results when
hygiene factors are poor. But it also suggests that improving the hygiene
factors will only decrease job dissatisfaction; it will not increase job

10. Figure 5.2 Sources of dissatisfaction and satisfaction in
Herzberg's two-factors theory.
Hygiene factors in job context Motivator factors in job content
affect job dissatisfaction affect job satisfaction
Organizational policies Achievement
Quality of supervision Recognition
Working conditions Work itself
Base wage or salary Responsibility
Relationships with peers Advancement
Relationships with Growth
subordinates
Status
Security
Herzberg found that a low base salary or wage makes people
dissatisfied, but that playing more does not necessarily satisfy or
motivate them.

11. Motivator factors
Are sources of job satisfaction. These factors are related to job content
– what people actually do in their work. They include such things as a
sense of achievement, opportunities for personal growth, recognition,
and responsibility. According to the two-factors theory, the presence or
absence of satisfiers or motivators in peoples jobs is the key to
satisfaction, motivation, and performance. When motivator factors are
minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance;
when motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises
motivation and performance.
Herzberg suggests the technique of job enrichment as a way of building
satisfiers into job content.
―If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do.‖ by
Herzberg
It is criticized as being method bound, or replicate when Herzberg's

12. Equity Theory Of Motivation
Equity theory (As applied to workplace through the writing of J. Stacy
Adams, equity theory argues that any perceived inequity becomes a
motivating state of mind; in others words, people are motivated to
behave in ways that restore or maintain equity in situations.
Equity and social comparisons
The basic foundation of equity theory is social comparison.
Equity theory predictions
Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the rewards
received for his or her work contributions compare unfavorably to the
rewards others people appear to have received for their work. The basis
equity comparison can be summarized as follows;
Individuals outcomes > others outcomes
Individuals efforts < others efforts

13. Felt negative inequity in the equation exists when an individuals
feels that he or she has received relatively less than others have
in proportion to work inputs.
Felt positive inequity exists when an individuals feels that he or she
has received relatively more than on others have.
When either feeling exists, the theory states that people will be
motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a
sense of felt equity.
You can view the equity comparison as intervening between the
allocation of rewards and the ultimate motivational impact impact
for the recipient.

14. Reward Motivational
Equity
impact of
received comparison
reward
That is:
A reward given by a team leader and expected to be highly
motivational to a team member. For example, may or may not
work as intended.
Equity theory reminds us that the motivational value of rewards is
determined by individuals interpretation in the context of social
comparison.
In more collective cultures, such as those of many Asian
countries, the concern often runs more for equality than equity.

15. Equity Theory and Organizational justice
One of the basic elements of equity theory is the fairness with which
people perceive are being treated.
Organizational justice—how fair and equitable people view the practices
of their workplace.
Procedural justice is the degree to which the rules and procedures
specified by policies are properly followed in all cases to which they are
applied.
Distributive justice is the degree to which all people are treated the same
under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age, or any other
demographic characteristic.
Interactional justice is the degree to which the people affected by a
decision are treated with dignity and respect.

16. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Expectancy theory. It posits that motivation is a result of a rational
calculation—people will do what they can do when want to do it.
Figure 5.3 key terms and managerial implications of vrooms
expectancy theory.
People exert Task Work-related
Work effort performance outcomes
Expectancy Instrumentality Valence
Select capable Clarify possible Identify needs and
Workers, train Rewards for match rewards to
them, set clear performance, give needs
goals performance-
contingent rewards

17. Expectancy Terms and Concepts
In expectancy theory, and as summarized in figure 5.3, a person is
motivated to the degree that he or she believes that
(1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy).
(2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality).
(3) the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence).
Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort
will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance.
Expectancy would equal zero if the person felt it were impossible to
achieve the given performance level; it would equal one of a person
were 100 percent certain that the performance could be achieved.
Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the individual that a given
level of a achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.
Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work
outcomes.

18. Expectancy Theory Predictions
Expectancy theory predicts that motivation to work hard to earn
the merit pay will be low if expectancy is low—a person feels that
he or she cannot achieve the necessary performance level.
Motivation will also be low if instrumentality is low—the person is
not confident a high level of task performance will result in a high
merit pay raise.
Motivation will also be low if valence is low—the person places
little value on a merit pay increase.
Motivation will be low if any combination of these exists.
A zero at any location on the right side of the expectancy equation
will result in zero motivation.

19. Expectancy Implications and Research
To influence expectancies, the advice is to select people with
proper abilities, train them well, support them with needed
resources, and identify clear performance goals.
To influence instrumentality, the advice is to clarify performance-
reward relationships, and then to confirm or live up to them when
rewards are actually given for performance accomplishments.
To influence valences, the advice is to identify the needs that are
important to each individual and then try to adjust available
rewards to match these needs.

20. Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation
Goals are important aspects of motivation, and yet they often go
unaddressed. Without clear goals, employees may suffer direction
problems; when goals are both clear and properly set employees may
be highly motivated to move in the direction of goal accomplishment.
Motivational Properties of Goals
Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing
the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing.
Goal-Setting Guidelines
Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are
less difficult ones.
Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are no
goals or vague or very general ones.

21. Task feedback, or knowledge or results, is likely to motivate people
toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher
performance goals.
Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have
the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish
them.
Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance
when they are accepted and there is commitment to them.
Goal Setting and the Management Process
Goals launch the process during planning, provide critical focal points
for organizing and leading, and then facilitate controlling to make sure
the desired outcomes are achieved.
One approach that integrates goals across these management
functions is known as management by objective, or MBO, for short.

22. MBO is essentially a process of joint goal setting between
managers and those who report to them.
MBO also helps clarify hierarchy o objectives as a series of
Well-defined means-ends chains.
Figure 5.4 how a management by objectives process
works.
Jointly establish Jointly evaluate
Individually act
Manager Performance Results and
goals recycle
Team member
Process
Performs tasks
Team member
while
actively Team member
Manager
Participates in actively
coaches
Team Developing participates in
And provides
member Performance performance
support
goals review