Research methodology

 RESEARCH Systematic, controlled, empirical &
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena, I.e., Systematic & controlled
Empirical Self-correcting Research is a
combination of both experience & reasoning and
must be regarded as the most successful approach
to the discovery of truth

1. A journey; An attitude; An experience; A method of
critical thinking; A careful critical enquiry in seeking
facts for principles
2. An art of scientific investigation
3. Scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic
4. Process of arriving at dependable solutions to
problems through the planned and systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data
5. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A
movement from the known to the unknown
6. Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through
objective, systematic and scientific method of
finding solution to a problem
7. Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to answer
the question

 A science of studying how research is done
scientifically
 A way to systematically solve the research
problem by logically adopting various steps
 Methodology helps to understand not only
the products of scientific inquiry but the
process itself

According to Clifford Woody, “Research
comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
collecting, organising and evaluating data
making deductions and reaching conclusions
and at last carefully testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis."

1. DESCRIPTIVE VS. ANALYTICAL
2. APPLIED VS. FUNDAMENTAL
3. QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
4. CONCEPTUAL VS. EMPIRICAL
5. SOME OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH

DESCRIPTIVE :
 Surveys & fact-finding enquiries
 State of affairs as it exists
 No control over variables
 Try to discover causes (I.e., ex- post facto)
ANALYTICAL :
 Uses facts or information already available
and analyze to make a critical evaluation

FUNDAMENTAL :
 Concerned with generalizations &
formulation of theory
 Knowledge for knowledge’s sake (I.e., pure
or basic research)
APPLIED:
 Finding a solution for an immediate problem
& not rigorous / flexible in application of the
conditions

QUANTITATIVE:
 Measured & expressed in terms of quantity
 Expression of a property or quantity in numerical
terms
 Quantitative research helps:
 i. Precise measurement
 ii. Knowing trends or changes overtime
 iii. Comparing trends or individual libraries /
units
QUALITATIVE :
 Involves quality or kind
 Helps in having insight into problems or cases

CONCEPTUAL :
 Related to some abstract idea or theory (for
thinkers & philosophers)
 Relies on literature
EMPIRICAL :
 Relies on experience or observation alone,
ex. data based research
 Capable of being verified by observation or
experiment
 Experimenter has control over variables

1. One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/
Developmental & Trend or prediction studies (the
time domain)
2. Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research
3. Clinical vs diagnostic studies
4. Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of
formulation of the problem) studies
5. Historical studies (Greater part of it is
quantitative)
6. Conclusion oriented or decision oriented research

1. To find out new knowledge or to achieve new
insights into existing field of knowledge.
2. To describe or explain accurately the
characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group.
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else. This type of
study is diagnostic in nature.
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables.

 Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research
 The chart shown in Figure well illustrates a
research process.
 The chart indicates that the research process
consists of a number of closely related activities, as
shown through I to VII.

 The research process begins with the recognition of a
problem or opportunity.
 At the very outset the researcher must single out the
problem he/she wants to study, i.e to decide area of
interest.
 There are two types of research problem, viz., those
 relate to states of nature
 relationship between variables
 Essentially two steps are involved in define research
problem, viz.,
 understanding the problem thoroughly and
 rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an point of
view.

The components of a research problem may be summarised
as:
i. There should be an individual or a group who have some
difficulty or problem.
ii. There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A
person or an organization who wants nothing cannot
have a problem.
iii. There should be alternative ways of pursuing the
objective the researcher wants to pursue. This implies
that there should be more than one alternative means
available to the researcher. This is because if the
researcher has no choice of alternative means, he/she
would not have a problem.
iv. There should be some doubt in the mind of the
researcher about the choice of alternative means. This
implies that research should answer the question relating
to the relative efficiency or suitability of the possible
alternatives.
v. There should be a context to which the difficulty relates.

 It is necessary for the researcher to conduct an extensive
survey connected with the problem.
 For this purpose –
 Manuals
 Company Records
 journals
 published data can be used.
 Literature review is integral part of entire research process
and makes valuable
 contribution to every operational step.
 Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and
frustrating, but is also rewarding.
 Its functions are:
 a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
 b. Improve your methodology;
 c. Broaden your knowledge;
 d. Contextualise your findings.

 Formulate hypothesis is tentative assumption made
in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
 Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to
the piece of research in hand because it has to be
tested.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of research and
to keep him on the right track.

 The function of research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
 Research purpose may be grouped into four
categories, viz.,
 (1) Exploration - to formulate a research problem
for an in-depth
 (2) Description - concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual or a
group.
 (3) Diagnosis -analyzing whether a certain variable
is associated with another comprises
 (4) Experimentation- the effects of the variables
on each other.

Specifically, the research design highlights decisions
which include:
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be
used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be
adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be
prepared

In view of the stated research design decisions, the
overall research design may be divided into the
following :
a. The sampling design that deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the selected
study;
b. The observational design that relates to the
conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
c. The statistical design that concerns with the
question of how many items are to be observed,
and how the information and data gathered are to
be analysed; and
d. The operational design that deals with the
techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.

 Samples can be either probability or non - probability
samples
 probability samples are simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/ area
sampling, etc.,
 non - probability samples are convenience sampling,
judgment sampling, quota sampling, etc.,
 I. Deliberate sample:
This technique involve deliberate selection of sample which
represent the whole universe.
 II. Simple random sampling:
As this sample is controlled by probability, there is every
equal chance for all the items of the universe to get
selected.
 III. Systematic sampling:
This is most simple and practical way of sampling. It is
covered under the techniques of probability sampling.
sampling is to select every first item on a list.

IV Stratified sampling:
This is also a technique of probability sampling, which is used for
the population not having homogeneous group.
V. Quota sampling:
This is an important from non-probability technique of sampling
quota sampling is considered as judgement sampling.
VI. Custer sampling / Area sampling :
This is a probability sampling technique cluster refers to a group
and in this sampling technique first the population is grouped, then
specific group is selected for the study.
The area sampling is just like a cluster sampling when geographical
area under the investigation is very large than the total area is
divided into non-overlapping small area.
VII. Multi-Stage Sampling :
Further development of the idea of cluster sampling. The first stage
may be to select large primary sampling units such as states,
then districts, the towns and finally certain families within
towns.

 The data is collected as per the requirement
of the study.
 this may be primary or secondary in nature.
 Primary data can be collected through:
 By Observation
 Through personal interview
 Through telephone interview
 By mailing of questionnaires
 Through Schedules

 Execution of the project is a very important
step in the research process.
 If the execution of the project proceeds on
correct lines, the data to be collected would
be adequate and dependable.
 The researcher should see that the project is
executed in a systematic manner and in
time.
 If the data should be made for proper coded.
 A careful watch and in order to keep the
survey as much realistic as possible.
 Accuracy is very necessary.

 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories.
 This stage mainly include :
 1. Coding
 2. Editing
 3. Tabulation
 This process is the most important process in the research as the
results are generated on the basis of data preparation.
 After the data collecting stage the collected data is
 edited,
 Coded,
 transcribed
 corrected if required and –
 validated.
 Uni/multivariate techniques are used for analyzing data when
there is a single/multiple measurement of each element or unit in
the sample data.

 Chi square test
 T – test
 F- test

 Interpretation are the central steps in the
research process.
 The goal of analysis is to summaries the
collected data in such a way that they
provide answer to questions that triggered
while research.
 Interpretation is the research for border,
meaning of research finding

 Researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him.
 Report should be as follows: the preliminary
pages; the main text and the end matter
 preliminary pages – title, acknowledgement,
foreword, table of contents, list of tables list of
illustrations
 Main text of the report includes:
 1. introduction
 2. summary of findings
 3. main report
 4. conclusion
 End of the report – bibliography, i.e., list of
books, journals, reports etc.,

 Purpose clearly defined.
 Research process detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed.
 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
 Findings presented unambiguously.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.

 Good research is systematic:
 It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with
the well defined set of rules
 Good research is logical:
 This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process. logical
reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
 Good research is empirical:
 It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete
data
 Good research is replicable:
 This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study

1. The lack of a scientific training in the
methodology of research is a great impediment
for researchers in our country.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the
university research departments on one sideband
business establishments, government departments
and research institutions on the other side.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not
have the confidence that the material supplied by
them to researchers will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are
undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and
fritters away resources.

 There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers
and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries are
also quite common.
 Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty
of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including
computer assistance.
 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory
at many places and much of the time and energy of
researchers are spent in tracing out the books,
journals, reports, etc.,
 There is also the problem that many of our libraries are
not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules,
reports and other government publications in time.
 There is also the difficulty of timely availability of
published data from various government and other
agencies doing this job in our country.
 There may, at times, take place the problem of
conceptualization and also problems relating to the
process of data collection and related things.

 A research problem refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
 In research process, research problem is the first and
foremost step.
 It can either be a real life situation or it may also
refers to a set of opportunities.
 Research Topic:
 The broad general area expected to investigate. It is a broad
idea or concept from which many problems may be
delineated.
 Research Problem:
 A situation or circumstance that requires a solution to be
described, explained, or predicted. It is an unsatisfactory

 There are two types of Research Problem:
1. Problems which relates to states of nature
 Eg – Status of working children in any
Metropolitan city in 2012.
2. Problems which relates to relationship
between variables
 Eg – Lack of chemical fertilizer in the main cause
of low production of grain food.

 There must be an individual or a group or an
organization having different types of environment. ‘I’,
‘N’ , Y
 There must be at lest two course of action is defined
by one or more values of the controlled variable.
‘C1’,’C2’
 There must be at lest two possible outcomes. Out of
these two a researcher wants an objective. ‘O1’,’O2’
 The courses of action available must provide some
chance of obtaining the objective but they cannot
provide the same chance as they have unequal
efficiencies for the desired result.
P(O1/I,C1,N) ≠ (O1/I,C2,N)

i. An individual or a group or an organisation that
has some difficulty or problem
ii. Some objective to be attained
iii. Alternative means for attaining the objectives
iv. Some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives
v. Some environments to which the difficulty
pertains

I. Subject which is overdone shall not be chosen.
II. Controversial subject should not become the
choice of an average researcher.
III. Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
IV. Subject selected for research should be familiar
and feasible.
V. Few factors to be considered are importance of
the subject, the costs involved, the time factor,
the qualifications and the training of a
researcher
VI. Selection of a problem must be preceded by a
preliminary study in case of new problems.

1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition

 A research design is a logical and systematic plan
prepared for directing a research study.
 It specifies the objectives of the study, the
methodology and techniques to be adopted for
achieving the objectives.
 It constitutes the blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
 It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answer to research question.
 The plan is the overall scheme or program of research.
 A research design is the program that guides the
investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and
interpreting observation.

 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be
used?
 How will the data be analysed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

research design may be divided into the following :
a. The sampling design that deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the selected
study;
b. The observational design that relates to the
conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
c. The statistical design that concerns with the
question of how many items are to be observed,
and how the information and data gathered are to
be analysed
d. The operational design that deals with the
techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.

 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analysing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since
most studies are done under these two constraints.

 A clear statement of the research problem;
 Procedures and techniques to be used for
gathering information;
 The population to be studied;
 Methods to be used in processing and analysing
data.

 Research design is needed because it gives the smooth
going of the various research operations, so making
research as efficient as possible we can get maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time
and money.
 Just as for better, economical and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what
is commonly called the map of the house) well thought
out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we
need a research design or a plan in advance of data
collection and analysis for our research project.
 Research design stands for advance planning of the
methods to be used for collecting the relevant data and
the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in
view the objective of the research and the availability
of staff, time and money.

 research design appropriate for a particular
research problem, usually involves the following
features.
 The mean of obtaining information.
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any;
 The objective of the problem to be studied.
 The nature of the problem to be studied .
 The availability of time and money for the research
work.

1. Dependent and independent variables
2. Extraneous variables
3. Control
4. Confounded relationship
5. Research hypothesis
6. Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing
7. Experimental and control groups
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10. Experimental units

 A variable is a concept that can take on
different quantitative values. E.g., weight,
height, income, etc.
 A dependent variable can be defined as the
variable, which depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable.
 On the other hand, an independent
variable can be defined as the variable that
is antecedent to the dependent variable.
 E.g., if height depends upon age, then height
is a dependent variable, while age is an
independent variable.

 That are not related to the purpose of the study but
may effect on the dependent variables are termed as
the extraneous variables
 For e.g.:-
 Suppose a researcher want to test the hypothesis that
there is a relationship between children gains in social
studies achievement and their self concept.
 In this case self-concept =independent variable
 Social studies achievement =dependent variable
 Intelligence may as well affect on the social
achievement.
 But it is not related to the study undertaken by the
researcher so it will be termed as Extraneous variable

 The most significant quality of a good research
design is to reduce the influence/effect of
extraneous variables.
 Control is a technical term, which is used while
designing the study, by reducing the effects of
extraneous independent variables.

 In case the dependent variable is bound by the
influence of extraneous variable,
 the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is known to be confused by
extraneous variables.

 the prediction or a hypothesised relationship that
needs to be tested by scientific methods.
 The researcher hypothesis is a predicative
statement that relates an independent variable to
dependent variable.
 Moreover, a research hypothesis needs to contain,
at least, one independent and one dependent
variable.

 When a research aims at investigating a research
hypothesis, it is known as the hypothesis-testing
research.
 it can be of the experimental or the non-
experimental design.
 a research in which the independent variable is
manipulated is known as the experimental
hypothesis-testing research. Ex: randomly 25 to
Group A, usual studies programme & 25 to Group
B, special studies programme
 while the research in which an independent
variable is not manipulated is known as the non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research. Ex:
randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence & reading ability

 When a group is exposed to usual conditions,
it is termed as a control group.
 But when the group is exposed to be some
special condition, it is termed as
Experimental group
 Ex: Group A - control group
Group B - Experimental group

 This can be defined as the different types of
conditions under which the experimental and
control groups are put.
 E.g., In order to determine the comparative
impact of three varieties of fertilizers on a
crop yield, the three different varieties of
fertilizers will be treated as three different
treatments.

 This can be defined as the process of examining
the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to
some research problem.
 E.g., An experiment conducted in order to research
the usefulness of a newly developed medicine.
 Moreover, experiments can be of two types:
 i. Absolute experiment The determination of the
impact of a fertilizer on a crop yield is an example
of absolute experiment.
 ii. Comparative experiment The determination of
the impact of one fertilizer, in comparison to
another fertilizer, is an example of comparative
experiment.

 these represent the pre-determined plots or
blocks, where different types of treatments are
used.
 Moreover, such type of experimental units must be
selected, as well as defined, very cautiously and
thoroughly.

I. Research design in case of exploratory
research studies
II. Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies
III. Research design in case of hypothesis-
testing research studies

 It is also known as formulative research study.
 The main purpose of such studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view.
 The major emphasis in such studies is on the
discovery of ideas and insights.
 Generally, the following three methods in the
context of research design
A. Literature survey
B. Experience survey
C. the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples

 Simple and fruitful method.
 Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be
reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a
basis for further research.
 It may also be considered whether the already
stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis.
 In this way the researcher should review and build
upon the work already done by others.
 Bibliographic survey is also considered under this
survey

 The survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied.
 The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into
the relationships between variables and new ideas
relating to the research problem.
 For such a survey people who are competent and
can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected
as respondents to ensure a representation of
different types of experience.
 The respondents so selected may then be
interviewed by the investigator.

 This method consists of the intensive study of
selected instances of the phenomenon in which one
is interested.
 For this purpose the existing records, if any, may
be examined, the unstructured interviewing may
take place, or some other approach may be
adopted.

 Descriptive research studies are those studies which
are concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual, or of a group.
 whereas diagnostic research studies determine the
frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else.
 The studies concerning whether certain variables are
associated are examples of diagnostic research studies.
 In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to
specify the objectives with sufficient precision to
ensure that the data collected are relevant.
 Then comes the question of selecting the methods by
which the data are to be obtained. In other words,
techniques for collecting the information must be
devised.
 “structured instruments” are used in such studies.

 Formulating the objective of the study (what the
study is about and why is it being made?)
 Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
 Selecting the sample (how much material will be
needed?)
 Collecting the data (where can the required data
be found and with what time period should the
data be related?)
 Processing and analysing the data.
 Reporting the findings.

 Hypothesis-testing research studies
(generally known as experimental studies)
are those where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships between
variables.
 Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but
will permit drawing inferences about
causality. Usually experiments meet this
requirement.

Research methodology

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