1. Running head: MOTIVATION 1
Motivation in Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Valeria Angelini
University of Miami

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Motivation in Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology is the specific study which takes psychological
theories and adapts them to the behavior of employees and the particular situations found in the
workplace. Within the field of industrial and organizational psychology there are many specific
areas of interest. In these areas, specific psychological concepts are analyzed in order to
determine how they affect the behavior and the overall state of the employee within the
workplace.
One of the most interesting and prolific areas of study in industrial and organizational
psychology is motivation. Motivation "is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as
well as beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form,
direction, intensity, and duration" (Pinder 2008, pp 3). There are many different aspects of
motivation and as a result, many different studies have been conducted on this subject in order to
better understand all of its components and how it has the tendency to affect different people in
different ways.
One particularly important aspect of motivation, especially with respect to industrial and
organizational psychology, is the principle that motivation can either be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are components of an incentive theory which aims to determine
how best to motivate different people. Intrinsically motivated people attribute their thoughts,
behaviors, as well as both their successes and their failures to their own self (Ryan and Deci
2000). These people feel a stronger sense of autonomy and thus reflect a larger sense of control
over everything that they do. In contrast, extrinsically motivated individuals feel the opposite
way. These individuals do not feel that they are in control of their own outcomes. For these

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individuals, rewards like money or recognition are important in order to influence them to
perform certain tasks (Ryan and Deci 2000).
Studying different aspects of motivation like those previously discussed is important in
order to understand why people do the things that they do. In industrial and organization
psychology, this is especially important as it not only helps to understand the employees but it
also provides a framework by which it is possible to predict what employees will do next. Based
on this, the applications of research on motivation would include the ability to motivate
employees and influence them so that they are able to complete specific tasks and augment their
work-related outcomes.
In this paper, four different studies on motivation within the field of industrial and
organizational psychology will be analyzed. These studies are different from one another
focusing on different aspects and elements of motivation in employees. Although there a re vast
differences between these studies, it is important to place these within the context of one another.
These studies have all recently been conducted and are reflective of current research on
motivation within this academic field.
In order to better understand motivation, the studies will be presented independently and
described at length. From here, it will be possible to make bigger generalizations about
motivation in industrial and organizational psychology. This will be reflective of this area of
study as a whole and will also allow for the generation of conclusions about the role that
motivation plays within this field. Furthermore, through this exercise, it will become evident that
it is necessary to draw parallels between different conversations within the same topic in order to
generate innovative and meaningful information about motivation in the field of industrial and
organizational psychology.

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The recovery potential of intrinsically versus extrinsically motivated off-job activities
Brunnelhuis and Trougakos (2014) carried out this stud, titled, “The recovery potential of
intrinsically versus extrinsically motivated off-job activities”, in order to better understand how
motivation affected the recovery potential of employees. Employee recovery is described as the
after-hours process where employees are able to alleviate the stress that they built up during the
work day. Although it would be best if employees were able to go home and spend all of their
time recovering, in reality few people get the opportunity to spend a significant amount of time
on this process. When most people get home they have additional work and chores they must
take care of. These tasks prevent a person from getting to recover and may actually build up
additional stress for the employee. This paper examines the differences between people with
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation when it comes to their approach to off-job activities.
The study has two main aims. The first is that the researchers wanted to develop a better
understanding of the boundary conditions of recovery activity-recovery outcome relation. This is
important because there still isn’t enough evidence to determine whether all individuals benefit
from leisure off job activities and are harmed by high-duty off job activities. Determining
whether intrinsically and extrinsically motivated people have different approaches to these
activities will provide the basis for determining differences between people in the recovery
process.
The second aim of this study is to determine the best way to measure recovery. The
study aims to evaluate the outcome measures used in the past like fatigue, need for recovery,
feeling recovered, wellbeing and positive effect in order to determine the best means by which
this variable can be measured. This is important in order to set variables which can be measured
in subsequent experiments.

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Based on the two aims outlined, the researchers have also identified four hypotheses to
guide their studies. The hypothesis are based on the existing literature on the subject while
making predictions based on the specific studies which they have set out to undertake. Their first
hypothesis states that people with intrinsic motivation will have stronger negative relationships
between exhaustion in the mornings and social, low-effort and physical activities after work. The
second hypothesis states the opposite from the first as it states that for people with intrinsic
motivation, there will be stronger positive relationships between feeling recovered in the
mornings and social, low-effort and physical activities after work.
The third and fourth hypothesis continue to focus on intrinsic motivation. The third
hypothesis states that when motivation is intrinsic, the positive relationships between exhaustion
and stressful off duty activities will be decreased. Meanwhile, the fourth hypothesis concludes
that when motivation is intrinsic, the positive relationships between feeling recovered and
stressful off duty activities will be decreased. Overall, from their hypotheses, it appears that the
researchers expect people with intrinsic motivation to be better adapted to the situations that they
face and better able to recuperate by the mornings.
In order to study these questions it is relevant to investigate individuals with a high stress
job as these will be the people more likely to experience exhaustion and a need for recovery as a
result from their job. As such, this study was actually performed on nurses in the Netherlands.
The study used a random sample of nurses from different departments at a health institution. The
study consisted of 100 nurses and when they were being selected, there was a 74% positive
response rate from the potential candidates. All nurses worked the day shift in order to minimize
the added stressors of a night shift.

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Since nurses are so used to filling out paperwork, the researchers thought that it would be
appropriate for the nurses to fill out surveys. In addition to generic surveys about their
demographic information, the nurses answered questions about motivation, recovery and
exhaustion. The nurses were also asked to keep a diary to monitor the changes in their feelings
throughout the day. They were reminded to fill out their journals in the mornings and ting the
afternoons before they went home.
The study found that the nurses that felt recovered in the morning had tended not to
participate in work-related our household tasks at home. Instead, the recovered nurses had
participated in social, low-effort and physical activities. Meanwhile, when the nurses reported to
be exhausted in the mornings, it was typically correlated to age, the amount of work and stress
that they had the previous day. Furthermore, the positive relationship between leisurely activities
and feeling recovered was more evident in employees with intrinsic motivation. Employees with
intrinsic motivation were also better able to eliminate the relationship between stressful tasks and
exhaustion the following morning.
Overall, the findings of this experiment suggested that people with intrinsic motivation
have much higher recovery potential than those with extrinsic motivation. As jobs become more
stressful, this information becomes more valuable as it is evident that it is necessary to try to
push employees to develop intrinsic motivation in order to better complete their jobs.
Intrinsically motivated employees were less likely to feel exhausted as they were better able to
recover overnight making them much more valuable employees in the workplace. These findings
are significant as they can be taken and used in any workplace to try to improve the overall
performance and state of mind of employees.

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The mediating role of affect in the relationship between need satisfaction and autonomous
motivation
Vandercammen, Hofmans and Theuns (2014) conducted a study to determine the
relationship between affect and motivation. The published study was called “The mediating role
of affect in the relationship between need satisfaction and autonomous motivation.” Before
conducting the study, the researchers hypothesized that there is a relationship between the
satisfaction of the need for autonomy and autonomous motivation and that this relationship is
influence by affect. When affect is positive, the relationship is more positive and when the affect
is negative, the relationship is more negative. The researchers also hypothesized that positive and
negative affect would have similar effects on the relationship between satisfaction of the need for
competence and autonomous motivation and well as satisfaction of the need for relatedness and
autonomous motivation.
In the first study, a daily diary study was used to determine the effects of positive and
negative affect on the need satisfaction-motivation relationship. Here, seventy two employees
from Belgium (38 men and 34 women) were selected from twenty two different companies to
take place in the study. The participants would go to work like normal but at the end of the day
they received an email with a link to an online survey. This was repeated for 10 consecutive
working days. During the survey task, the employees were asked to reflect on a specific task that
they had completed during the way. Additionally, the participants were asked to reflect on how
that specific task affected their psychological needs. Motivation and positive and negative affect
were especially analyzed in this task.

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Since this study was completed on Dutch employees, it was relevant to ensure that the
questions were well translated. Additionally, it was important to ensure that positive and
negative affect were evaluated according to Dutch standards since there are variations between
different cultures. In a similar fashion, a Dutch scale was used to measure motivation to ensure
that the experiment as a whole was culturally specific. This is an important consideration to
make in international studies.
This study found that all three of the need satisfactions (the need for autonomy, the need
for competence and the need for relatedness) were correlated with affect. When affect was
positive the correlation was positive and when affect was negative, the correlation was negative.
Additionally, motivation had a positive correlation to the satisfaction of both needs. These results
supported the hypothesis of the authors and suggested that need satisfaction and motivation were
in fact positively correlated. This supports the existing literature making it a valuable study
although there were some significant limitations with the data. The researchers found that the
diary was a useful means of assessing participants however, since the diary readings were not
measured until later, the variables were not examined in the moment that they were experienced.
This means that when the participants went to recall the events, their memories may not have
been very clear and their recollection of the task performed or of the feelings felt may have
subsequently suffered.
The authors wanted to replicate the findings of the first part of the experiment while
accounting for their limitations. To do this, they repeated a similar experiment but ditched the
idea of journaling in order to collect information at the moment. The researchers felt that this
design would provide more information about the directionality of the relationships and provide
more reliable data.

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To conduct this study, thirty seven new Belgian employees were selected. Of the
participants 17 were men and 20 were women. While the first experiment samples employees
from different companies, this second part took all of the employees from the same company. In
order to ensure that the data was collected at the appropriate time, the participants in this study
were issued smartphones specifically for use in this study. The study lasted ten consecutive
working days. The researchers would randomly page the participants four times a day. Each day,
two pages would be randomly issued before lunch and two would be randomly issued after
lunch. At this page, participants were asked to report on their level of need satisfaction and thirty
minutes later they had to report on their autonomous motivation. This design was selected in
order to avoid issues with directionality.
The researchers used different questionnaires from the first part of the study but they
ensured that all of the material was culturally appropriate once again. Different scales and
questionnaires were used in order to cross-validate the results and show consistency across the
different measures. In this study, similar results were found. Positive affect was found to have a
positive correlation with all three of the need satisfactions however, negative affect was only
found to be negatively correlation to the need for autonomy and competence. The similarities in
the results across the two studies essentially confirms the original results. The positive
relationship between positive affect and the need satisfactions was established and through the
second study, a temporal relationship was observed.
The results of this study are consistent with the literature about the role of positive affect
in self-determination theory. Self-determination theory is a motivation theory which establishes
the relationship between motivation and need satisfaction. This study elaborates on that
information by establishing the role of positive and negative affect and demonstrating the

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difference in the outputs of the relationships. This study seems minor in the grand scheme of
what has already been established in this literature however it is important because it
demonstrates that while self-determination theory is a well established theory, there is still an
immense amount of work which can be done to expand on this body of knowledge.
Age-related differences in work motivation
Inceoglu, Segers and Bartrum (2012) published a study called “Age-related differences in
work motivation” in the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. This study
had over 10,000 participants who were asked in depth demographical questions as well as
questions about their motivation and psychological state in order to determine whether there was
any relationship between the age of a worker and his or her attitude towards the job and their
level of motivation. This study is especially important as our society undergoes massive lifestyle
changes which are leading many people to be employed much later on in their lives as opposed
to the earlier retirements which were once seen.
This study was divided into to major parts. The first part of the study had 9,388
participants. These participants had all completed the SHL MQ questionnaire. The MQ
questionnaire is a good tool to use in measuring motivation because it measures the long-term,
stable motivation. The MQ is made up of 18 different scales which total up to 144 items in total.
In this scale, different situations are presented and participants have to assess each of these
situations and determine how they would affect the participants’ motivation to work. The MQ is
an established measure whose content validity has been studied extensively making it a
worthwhile measure for use in this study.
The study found that as employees grew older, their motivation did change. There wwre
significant differences between the five age groups. Six of the eight work outcomes related to

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energy were correlated with age. It was found that energy increased until 36-45 years of age
when it then began to decline. This pattern was most evident in the factors for competition and
power. In contrast, the intrinsically rewarding motivators had a positive correlation to age. This
means that those factors increased as age increased. Conversely, extrinsically rewarding
motivators were negatively affected by age. The only two factors which did not have a
significant relationship with age were material reward and progression. Against the original
expectations of the researchers pleasant working conditions and job security were not linked with
age.
The second study carried out used the same MQ used in the first study, but a completely
different set of participants. There were 2,512 participants in the second study and over two
thirds of them had managerial experience. The participants were from twelve different European
countries and a lot of the participants were either expatriates or worked closely with the field of
international business. The methodology of this experiment was very similar to the methodology
of the first experiment published in this article.
The second study found that the energy related work outcomes, like achievement,
competition, fear of failure, and personal growth, were negatively correlated with age. As
employees got older, these outcomes were less important and less motivating to them. Intrinsic
motivation factors like personal principles and autonomy had a positive correlation with age, just
as the researchers had expected. The other factors analyzed were found to have no relationship
with age. This is interesting given that there were slight differences between the results of this
study and the first study.
Since the two studies were very similar as they used the same methodology, it is relevant
to compare them to one another. The researchers aimed to investigate the overlap in results

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across two different groups of participants. Although the actual size of effect differed between
the two studies, the overall patterns seen in the results were consistent. The researchers
acknowledged that for study two they had made a more conscious effort to control for the
demographics. To see how these additional efforts affected the effect sizes a regression analysis
was conducted however this statistical test showed that it was unlikely that the differences in
effect sizes could be attributed to the additional controls placed on the demographics in study
two.
While conducting the statistical analysis in this study, the extensive demographic
information collected made it possible to control for control for gender, managerial experience,
and university education. The researchers knew that these additional controls were important as
they were possible to influence the different job features and work outcomes. The researchers
found that managerial experience and university education were not as influential as gender.
Differences between the genders were found in the relationship between age and work
motivation however, it is relevant to note that even with these differences, the results followed
the general pattern observed across all studies.
Although a lot of different factors were examined in this study, it is more important to
group these factors in order to make generalizations about the results. Overall, older employees
tended to favor the intrinsic motivation factors while younger employees tended to favor the
intrinsic motivation factors. The change in motivational emphasis makes sense as with time,
one’s values begin to change thus affecting the factors that motivate them. Furthermore, this
study demonstrates that against popular belief, older employees are not less motivated. This is a
concept which is misunderstood as the reality is simply that older employees are differently
motivated. The lack of importance that older employees attribute to intrinsic factors may come

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across as a decrease in motivation but in reality, they are just swapping out intrinsic factors for
extrinsic ones thus symbolizing a change in their motivational patterns.
The results from this study are very relevant from a managerial point of view. Managers
are always dedicated to finding ways to motivate their employees. As employees get older and
their values change, it is necessary to reassess their motivational systems in order to maximize
their work output. By being more in tune to the nature of employees’ motivation it is possible to
better manage and lead these employees and managers can also make the most out of the time
they spend at work.
The relationship of training motivation to participation in training and development
Tharenou (2001) published the article “The relationship of training motivation to
participation in training and development” to describe her experiment discussing how training
motivation in employees affects their experience during the training and development period on
the job. Training is a process for new employees but existing employees also undergo training in
order to ensure that they are up to date on all of the skills and processes required by their job.
Many employers consistently train employees in order to maximize their performance in the
workplace. Although training is generally seen as a positive experience from a managerial and
psychological point of view, some employees are resistant to the idea of training or brush it off
as if it were unimportant.
Training is important not only because it increases the skills of employees but it also
positively influences their motivation as well as their overall outlook on their job, their employer
and their career. This study introduces information from other studies which has been used to
identify three separate aspects of pre-training motivation. These are motivation to learn, self
efficacy and valence-instrumentality-expectancy beliefs. Overall, training motivation has been

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defined as the motivation to learn or the expectancy motivation as the person is motivated by
what they anticipate to come or what they anticipate that they will stand to gain from the training
experience.
The first hypothesis laid out by the researcher is that training motivation and a supportive
and fostering work environment will influence participation in training. This suggests that
employees that are more motivated and feel as if their workplace is more supportive of their
endeavors will show greater interest in their training. The second hypothesis is that “training
motivation (motivation to learn, motivation through expectation) mediates the prediction by the
work environment (job challenge, supervisor support, and lack of barriers) of participation in
training and development” (pp 602). The last hypothesis states that for employees that are more
training motivated, a supportive work environment will play a larger role in whether or not they
participate than those employees who do not show motivation to train at all. This would suggests
that the supportive work environment is only influential if employees already show some form of
motivation towards the training.
To carry out this experiment, the researcher wanted a wide variety of participants.
Participants were chosen from different fields of work in both the private and public sector.
Additionally, participants were chosen at different levels of the work hierarchy ranging from
upper management to the lowest subordinates. After potential participants were selected, they
were mailed a survey. Over five thousand surveys were mailed out and nearly three thousand
were returned. Of the participants that returned surveys, three fourth volunteered to follow up
with the researcher a year later at which point they were mailed the same survey they had filled
out to assess change over time.
The survey used by this researcher incorporated known and generally accepted scales.

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Items from Noe and Wilk’s motivation to learn scale were used. Additionally, the researcher
created some of her own questions in order to specifically target her own objectives for the
study.
The results of this study generally supported the hypothesis. The researcher found that
that training motivation and a supportive and fostering work environment did in fact positively
influence participation in training. Supervisor support was especially important with respect to
the work environment as this was a very strong predictor of the extent to which the participant
participated in the training. Conversely, hypothesis two was not supported by the data. Direct
and mediator analysis was performed and the researcher was able to determine that job
challenge, supervisor support and lack of barriers did not mediate training motivation in this
experiment.
The last hypothesis was supported by the data though, the researcher found that for
employees that are more training motivated, a supportive work environment will play a larger
role in whether or not they participate than those employees who do not show motivation to train
at all. In studying this, it was found that as long as the employee was motivated to train, the
amount of support the employee received from the workplace could actually be used in order to
predict the extent to which the employee would participate in the training.
This study shows that employees will be more inclined to participate in the training and
that they will get more out of the training if they are self-motivated and if they feel a sense of
support from their organization. This is important for employers because through these findings
it is possible to influence employees so that they are more receptive to training. While it is
impossible to improve the training motivation of employees for them, highlighting the benefits
of training and establishing how training can help them grow may increase their motivation

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towards this process. Furthermore, employers should always set out to be supportive of their
employees. Creating a culture where employees feel as if they are being supportive and fostered
is important because it will increase the participation of those employees that are already training
motivated.
By ensuring that employees always feel a sense of support and encouragement the
employer is really working their hardest in order to ensure that the employee is at the best place
possible workwise. While this may seem obvious, many times employers feel that employees
should have a strong sense of self direction and be able to work independently. Although training
is an independent development process, this study shows the importance of ensuring that the
work environment is one where employees feel supported as this will help them to develop their
individual long term potential.
Integration of the studies
One of the strongest points of comparison between these four studies is the factor of
intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. In the first study, employees with intrinsic motivation were
able to recover better after work. This is important because working is stressful and for
employees who are not able to recover after hours, the workload may seem especially difficult
and they may feel easily overwhelmed. In the third study, it was found that employees that grew
older developed a more intrinsic sense of motivation. Instead of caring about the material aspects
of the job, these employees began to care more about how the job made them feel and the
intangible elements it brought to their lives.
It is interesting that the researcher of the second study pointed out that often times it is
thought that older employees lose motivation. In reality, these employees just become more
intrinsically motivated. This observation suggests that at the surface level, people do not pick up

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on intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is easier to see and identify, some might argue that
it is even easier to understand. This is important to consider because as the first study pointed
out, intrinsically motivated employees fare better stress wise. By focusing more on intrinsic
motivation in the workplace, employees might perform better while also feeling a greater sense
of fulfillment.
Although the fourth and final study did not specifically address intrinsic motivation,
elements of this are clearly visible. In this study, employees were assessed on how motivated
they were to complete training. Completing training is likely a daunting task for extrinsically
motivated individuals. This experience will not bring them any extrinsic rewards. When
employees are trained, they are not provided any additional tangible incentives. For an
intrinsically motivated employee this is not a problem because they can recognize the importance
of self-education and self-growth. However, for an extrinsically motivated employee this
experience is a nightmare as they do not stand to gain any recognition or any type of bonus
money or prize for their participation.
The second study did not deal with intrinsic or extrinsic motivation rather it dealt with
another very important theory in motivation. Self- determination theory was established in the
early 1970s by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. This theory focuses on the extent to which a
person’s behavior is self motivated or self- determined (Deci 1975). This theory outlines three
innate needs that every individual has which eventually lead to optimal functioning. The three
needs are competence, relatedness and autonomy (Deci 1975). The theory is based on the fact
that these three needs motivate people to carry out the activities which keep them in a positive
psychological state.
The self-determination theory has as an assumption that humans are innately proactive

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with their drive and emptions and that they have a tendency towards growth (Deci and
Vansteenkiste 2004). While this is true, it does not mean that all individuals are always heading
upward bound in a positive direction. As the second study found, individuals with a positive
affect. People with a more positive approach were more likely to show competence, relatedness
and autonomy in that study. Meanwhile, people with a more negative approach did not exhibit
these factors. These findings tie in with the concept of autonomous motivation. When people are
positive they also have a tendency to be more self-motivated and driven which improves their
outcomes.
Although this study does not mention intrinsic motivation, in analyzing it it is evident
that that individuals with positive affect which are described to be self-motivated in the study are
actually intrinsically motivated individuals. These individuals have an overall positive outlook
and a means by which they can motivate themselves without having to rely on extrinsic rewards
or outside forms of motivation. Based on this study, it is clear that these are the most well-
adapted employees with the best potential to succeed which is relevant to note as it is consistent
with the findings of the other studies.
In reflecting on these three studies it would be really easy to make the assumption, or
rather the generalization, that it is simply much easier to be an intrinsically motivated employee.
While this may seem true, this is not the type of statement that can be made. First and foremost,
it is relevant to acknowledge that there are both good and bad intrinsically motivated employees
just as there are both good and bad extrinsically motivated ones. Secondly, whether a person is
intrinsically or extrinsically motivated is not necessarily something that they can control. A
person’s source of motivation is dependent on many things like culture, personality, and previous
experiences. While and individual can make an effort to try to be more motivated by intrinsic

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factors, if it is something that does not come naturally to him or her it will not be an easy task to
change the way that he or she thinks.
Despite the fact that employees can’t be magically changed to suddenly become
intrinsically motivated, it is possible to influence them to consider more intrinsic values of
motivation. This is something that can happen naturally over time as is seen in the third
experiment. Through this process of encouraging employees to think more about the intrinsic
payoffs of their work, it may be possible to shape other behaviors like their ability to recover
after work as seen in the first study or increasing their receptiveness and willingness to
participate in training, as seen in the fourth study. Based on these studies it is evident that
influencing employees to be more intrinsically motivated may lead them to develop better
behaviors in the workplace.
From the analysis of these four studies another interesting question also develops. It is
relevant to investigate how extrinsically motivated employees can improve their performance.
Based on this investigation of motivation, it is likely that these employees are so dependent on
extrinsic factors that they are unable to motivate themselves however this is not to say that there
are no successful and productive extrinsically motivated individuals. Focusing more on these
will be interesting in order to generate more comparisons between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation and also in order to establish ways in which employers can work to maximize the
potential of extrinsically motivated individuals.
In reviewing these different studies, the breadth of the subject of motivation in industrial
and organizational engineering is clear. After carefully analyzing these studies though, it
becomes clear that although there are different points of focus and of emphasis, the bottom line
is that it is necessary to determine what motivates employees. By determining what motivates

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employees, it is possible to enrich them and provide them with motivation. This will inevitably
encourage them to do more work and of higher quality, regardless of the motivation behind their
actions.
As the self-determination theory emphasizes, humans are innately proactive with their
drive and emptions and that they have a tendency towards growth (Deci and Vansteenkiste
2004). Whether they are proactive because of money or their own sense of belonging at their
organization is not as important. All of these studies into motivation help us to understand more
about people and why they are either proactive or not. In learning this, theories can be developed
to help construct frameworks to influence people in order to make them more productive and a
greater asset to the workplace.
Here, it is possible to see why motivation is such an important topic in industrial and
organizational psychology. Industrial and organizational psychology is the specific study which
takes psychological theories and adapts them to the behavior of employees and the particular
situations found in the workplace. Obviously this is done with the intent of creating better
employees and a more efficient workplace. Better employees are employees that are more
efficient and thus more motivated to do their jobs. Furthermore, motivating employees is
essential for the creation of a better workplace. Through a variety of studies like the ones
outlined above and by comparing them to one another to generate meaningful analysis, as has
been done, the objectives of industrial and organizational psychology are being met and the body
of knowledge within this field continues to grow allowing employers to optimize their
organizations.
References
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.

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Deci, E. L. and Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction:
Understanding human development in positive psychology. Ricerche di Psichologia, 27,
17–34.
Inceoglu, I., Segers, J., & Bartram, D. (2012). Age-related differences in work
motivation. Journal Of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 85(2), 300-329.
Pinder, C. C.(2008). Work motivation in organizational behavior (2nd edition). New York:
Psychology Press.
Ryan, R. and Deci, E.L (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New
Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology,25 (1), 54–67.
Ten Brummelhius, L.L. & Trougakos, J.P. (2014). The recovery potential of
intrinsically versus extrinsically motivated off-job activities. Journal Of Occupational &
Organizational Psychology, 87(1), 177-199.
Tharenou, P. (2010). The relationship of training motivation to participation in
training and development. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74
(5), 599-621.
Vandercammen, L., Hofmans, J. & Theuns, P. (2014). The mediating role of
affect in the relationship between need satisfaction and autonomous motivation. Journal
Of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 87(1), 62-79.