Ch. 2 History of American Schooling - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis

CHAPTER 2–HISTORY OF AMERICAN SCHOOLING
PAGE 17
This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources,
Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF AMERICAN SCHOOLING
KEY POINTS
1. Understanding historical forces that helped shape our schools will facilitate
our understanding of school today.
2. The beginnings of a liberal arts education were in Athens during the Greek
empire.
3. The Latin Grammar school, developed during later part of the Roman
empire, was the most predominant part of Roman civilization.
4. Education made significant gains during the Renaissance and Reformation
periods (1300 AD - 1700 AD).
5. Education in Colonial America varied considerably from region to region.
6. Massachusetts and other New England states led the way for public
educational programs.
7. The primary purpose of education in New England was religious training.
8. Academies expanded rapidly during the early 1800s and became the
predominant secondary model until high schools appeared.
9. The common schools movement, which began in Massachusetts and was
led by Horace Mann, resulted in our publicly supported elementary school
programs.
10. High school evolved from the Latin Grammar School and academies
during the early 20th
century.
11. John Dewey was the most influential individual on American education
during the first half of the 20th
century.
12. The federal government began its extensive involvement in education
during the latter half of the 20th
century.
Copyright © 2005
William Kritsonis
All Rights Reserved / Forever

SCHOOLING (2002)
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CHAPTER 2–HISTORY OF AMERICAN SCHOOLING
A. OVERVIEW
This chapter provides information regarding the history of public education.
An overview of the European foundations of our public education is presented,
followed by a description of public education in this country from Colonial
America to the present.
B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
ACADEMIES - began in the mid-1700s until the Civil War–forerunners of the
current comprehensive high school.
APPRENTICESHIP - a system of on-the-job training that was based on
ancient and medieval practices.
BROWN CASE (May 17, 1954) - U.S. Supreme Court stated that “separate”
was inherently unequal and required that all schools desegregate with all
deliberate speed; followed by 25 years of litigation, turmoil, and disruption.
COLONIAL EDUCATION - three parts:
1. New England–heavily influenced by Calvinism;
2. Middle Colonies–varied programs were begun from Dutch Reform to
academies which taught working skills;
3. Southern Colonies–education was private schools and tutors for the
learned gentry.
COMMITTEE OF TEN - first reform group for high schools; established a
precedent by having groups of professionals assess the needs of education;
established by the NEA in 1893.
COMMON SCHOOLS - beginning of public education, tax-supported: an
institution that would provide its students with basic cultural and literary
skills–expressed the idea of a cultural community in which ideas, experiences,
beliefs, aspirations, and values would become uniquely American.
COMPULSORY EDUCATION - the first general law attempting to control the
conditions of children; (Compulsory Attendance Act of 1852 enacted by the
state of Massachusetts); included mandatory school attendance for children
between the ages of 8 and 14 for at least three months out of each year, with at
least six weeks to be consecutive.

CHAPTER 2– HISTORY OF AMERICAN SCHOOLING
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EUROPEAN FOUNDATIONS - the European educational system (Greek and
Roman) provided the foundation of our system.
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS - a more narrowed curriculum forebear of the current
high school.
GREEK EDUCATION - the educational systems reflected the basic
philosophies of the city-states: physical and moral emphasis: SPARTA; family
oriented, reading, writing, literacy, music, poetry, drama, and science.
Strength, persistence, endurance, obedience, patriotism; a program that
reflected military objectives. ATHENS; Liberal Arts emphasized mental and
physical development of the individual. Stressed ethics, knowledge,
appreciation of aesthetics, citizenship, loyalty, and physical attributes.
HARVARD COLLEGE - celebrated its 367th
anniversary in 2003, is the oldest
institution of higher learning in America. John Harvard was a young minister
who, upon his death in 1638, left his library and half his estate to the new
institution. Harvard was founded in 1636.
HORACE MANN - credited with the success of the common school
movement–Father of American Free Public Schools.
JOHN DEWEY - primary influence in American education during the first
half of the 20th
century.
LAND ORDINANCE OF 1785 - an act under the Articles of Confederation
that required each township to reserve lot #16 for the support of public schools.
MANUAL TRAINING MOVEMENT - was the precursor to the vocational
training programs in our schools today. First used in the United States in the
1870s in the training of engineers, the movement spread rapidly to general
public education.
MEDIEVAL EDUCATION - 800 years from 476 AD (fall of the Roman
Empire) to 1300 AD–a severe decline in education the first 500 years (Dark
Ages) and revived the last 300 years. Education was mostly religion and
philosophy.
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION - started out in 1857 as the
National Teachers Association founded by 43 educators in Philadelphia.
NEW ENGLAND PRIMER - 1690 textbook which became available. It
contained 24 rhymes for the alphabet, vowels, and syllables and lessons about
religion.
NORTHWEST ORDINANCES - in 1787 these ordinances reinforced the 1785
land ordinance by encouraging education and expressing a commitment for
education.

SCHOOLING (2002)
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“OLDE DELUDER SATAN ACT” - act passed in 1647 in Massachusetts
designed to outwit Satan. It required towns of 50 or more families to provide a
teacher for reading and writing; towns of 100 or more families had to provide
instruction in Latin, grammar, secondary or university preparation.
OHIO ENABLING ACT OF 1802 - federal government made outright
financial grants to states to support education. This act returned 5% of the
earnings from the sale of public lands to newly admitted states.
ROMAN EDUCATION - heavily influenced by Greek education. Two
periods–without Greek influence (750-250 BC) and with Greek influence (350
BC-200 AD).
SPUTNIK - a Soviet satellite that was launched in 1957 and resulted in a crest
of public criticism from American education reformers.
THE HORNBOOK - a wooden paddle with lessons tacked on and covered by
a piece of transparent horn.
THE DAME SCHOOL - ladies would teach children their abc’s, numbers, and
prayers while they went about their daily household tasks.
THE MCGUFFEY READERS - a series of readers that were very moralistic.
They represented the white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant as the model American.
UNIVERSAL EDUCATION - changes in education during the reformation era
(1500-1700) resulted in expanding literacy to the masses other than that
controlled by the Catholic Church.

PAGE 21
SCHOOLING IN COLONIAL AMERICA
NOVA SCOTIA
Province of
Quebec
Indian
reserve
Indian
reserve
East FL
ME
NH
MA
CT RINY
PA NJ
MD
DE
GA
SC
NC
VA
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES
• Tradition of government and religious
involvement and support.
• Two-track system of education:
universal elementary; secondary only
for those preparing for positions of
leadership in the church or
government.
• Elementary education: dame schools,
reading and writing schools,
apprentice system, charity schools.
Concerned mainly with 3Rs. Used
material that was religious and
authoritarian in nature.
• Secondary education: Latin grammar
schools that taught the classical
curriculum, and academies and private
venture schools that taught subjects
useful in trade and commerce.
• Colleges: Harvard (1636), Yale (1701),
Brown (1764), Dartmouth (1769).
MIDDLE COLONIES
• Pattern of pluristic, parochial schools, with no
government support.
• Somewhat limited elementary education; schools
operated primarily by various denominations.
• Limited secondary education; a few private venture schools.
• Colleges: Princeton (1746), Pennsylvania (1753),
Columbia (1754), Rutgers (1766).
SOUTHERN COLONIES
• Educational opportunity determined almost exclusively by social class. Elementary
education for other than upper class was provided through apprentice system,
endowed schools, charity schools, denomination school, “old field schools,” and
private venture schools.
• Children of upper class attended exclusive private schools or had private tutors.
• Secondary education was available primarily to children of the wealthy through
private schools or tutors, Latin grammar schools, or schooling outside the colonies.
A few private venture schools operated in the large cities.
• Colleges: William and Mary (1693).
Source: Gutek, G. (1997). A history of the educational experience (2nd
ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland
Press, Inc. Adapted with permission.

SCHOOLING (2002)
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Western European Educational Thought, 1200 A.D.-1850 A.D.
Theorist Educational Theories Influence on Western Education
Aquinas (1225-1274) Human beings possess both a
spiritual and a physical nature.
Man is a rational being. Faith and
reasons are complementary
sources of truth.
Provided basis for Roman
Catholic education.
Erasmus (1466-1536) The liberally educated man is one
educated in the seven liberal arts,
steeped in the classics and in
rhetoric. Systematic training of
teachers is needed. Follower of
Quintilian.
Advanced the need for the
systematic training of teachers
and a humanistic pedagogy.
Promoted the importance of
politeness in education.
Luther (1483-1546) Education is necessary for religious
instruction, the preparation of
religious leaders, and the
economic well-being of the state.
Education should include
vocational training.
Provided support for concept of
free and compulsory elementary
education. Promoted concept of
universal literacy.
Calvin (1509-1564) Education serves both the religious
and political establishment:
elementary schools for the masses
where they could learn to read the
Bible and thereby attain
salvation; secondary schools to
prepare the leaders of church and
state.
Concept of two-track system and
emphasis on literacy influenced
education in New England and
ultimately the entire nation.
Bacon (1561-1626) Education should advance scientific
inquiry. Understanding of an
ordered universe comes through
reason.
Provided major rationale for the
development of critical thinking
skills. Proposed the concept of a
research university.
Comenius (1592-1670) Learning must come through the
senses. Education must allow the
child to reason by doing. There is
a general body of knowledge
(paideia) that should be possessed
by all.
Provided theory of child growth
and development. Concept of
paideia profoundly influenced
numerous Western educational
leaders.
Locke (1632-1704) Children enter the world with their
minds like a blank slate (tabula
rasa). The goal of education is to
promote the development of
reason and morality.
Provided support for the concept
of the reasonable man and the
ability and necessity for the
reasonable man to participate in
the governing process.
(Table continues)

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(Table continued)
Theorist Educational Theories Influence on Western Education
Rousseau (1712-1778) Major proponent of naturalism,
which emphasized individual
freedom. The child is inherently
good. Children’s growth and
development goes through stages,
which necessitates adaptation of
instruction. Education should be
concerned with the development
of the child’s natural abilities.
Naturalism provided basis for
modern educational theory and
practice. Father of modern child
psychology.
Pestalozzi (1746-1827) Education should be child centered
and based on sensory experience.
The individual differences of each
child must be considered in
assessing readiness to learn. Each
child should be developed to his or
her maximum potential. Ideal of
love emphasized the importance
of emotion in the learning process.
Instruction should begin with the
concrete and proceed to the
abstract.
Concept of maximum
development of each child
provided support for education
of the disadvantaged.
Pestalozzian methods exported
throughout Europe and to the
United States. One of the
earliest theories of instruction
formally taught to teachers.
Herbert (1776-1841) The aim of education should be the
development of moral character.
Any material can be learned if
presented systematically:
preparation, presentation,
association, generalization, and
application. Instruction must
arouse interest to be successful.
Education is a science.
Elevated the study of educational
psychology. Demonstrated the
significance of methodology in
instruction. Advanced the
concept that education is a
science and can be studied
scientifically.
Froebel (1782-1852) The aim of education should be to
ensure self-development through
self-expression. Self-expression
takes place through an activity
curriculum. The school should
promote creativity and bring out
“divine effluence” within each
child.
Established first kindergarten.
Provided theoretical basis for
early childhood education.
Source: Webb, D., Metha, A., & Jordan, K. (2000). Foundations of American education (3rd
ed.). Columbus,
OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Adapted with permission.

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C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
1. What was the system of education like in ancient Greece and Rome?
a. Greece was made up of city-states. Each had its own school system and
its own reasons for educating citizens.
b. Sparta–schools attempted to assist in making obedient subservient
citizens.
c. Athens–schools focused on the wholeness of mind, body, and spirit.
d. Rome–had two periods of education. The first was without Grecian
influence during which the schools offered only rudimentary
instruction in reading and writing. The second, after the Greek
influence, Roman schools developed into the Latin Grammar Schools
where instruction was given in history, poetry, and scientific writing.
e. Schooling in ancient societies emphasized:
Education in Sparta Contribution to Western Education
• Goal of education: to promote patriotism and train
warriors.
• Welfare of individual secondary to the welfare of
the state.
• Special needs children were eliminated at birth.
• Curriculum emphasized exercise and games, military
training, dance and music.
• Schools: military schools.
• Recognition of importance of physical and moral
training.
Education in Athens
• Goal of education: to prepare the well-rounded
individual for participation in citizenship.
• Emphasis on the development of reason.
• Curriculum: reading, writing, mathematics, logic,
physical education,
music, and drama.
• Schools: didascaleum (music school);
grammatistes (reading, writing, and arithmetic).
• Concept of liberal education.
• The Socratic method as a teaching method.
• Importance of reason/the scientific method.
Education in Rome
• Goal of education: to develop the intellectual and
moral citizen.
• Emphasis on education for citizenship.
• Curriculum: reading, writing, arithmetic,
grammar, literature, music, rhetoric, astronomy,
geometry, and philosophy.
• Schools: ludus (elementary); grammar school
(secondary); schools of rhetoric (from age 16 to
20); universities.
• Roman curriculum and organization adopted
throughout Europe.
• Recognition of individual differences.
• Recognition of importance of play and
relaxation.

PAGE 25
2. How were the Greek and Roman educational systems different and
similar?
The Greek school in Athens taught poetry, drama, history, oratory, and
science through music as well as typical music education. The Roman
schools taught these same subjects through literature. Greece’s city-states
approached education differently, but the schools in each district were
uniform in their aims. Roman schools developed for a variety of
instructional aims, from teaching basic reading and writing to preparation
for careers in public service.
3. What were the differences in the educational systems established in
the colonies?
New Englanders–predominantly Calvinists–schools were designed to
create educated Puritans to perpetuate the religious, social, and economic
beliefs of the adults. All students attended. Middle Colonies–religious
dissenters, i.e., Quakers and Anabaptists. These programs varied greatly.
They ranged from church run schools that taught reading, writing, and
religion to the private academies organized for career preparation.
Southern Colonies– mostly Anglican–sparsely populated plantation and
farming communities. Mostly tutorial education was centered in and
around the large plantations. Poor white and black children were mostly
uneducated.
4. Why did the high school emerge as the model for secondary
education?
a. change from rural to urban society;
b. industrialization that accompanied urbanization;
c. the public’s growing sensitivity of the needs of children and youth;
d. better financially able to support public schools;
e. Kalamazoo court case of 1874 supporting right of taxation to support
public schools. The Michigan Supreme Court ruled that the Kalamazoo
School District could levy taxes to support high schools.
5. What ideas existed that supported the Common School movement
(1837-1848)?
a. education would benefit political enlightenment;
b. individuals from diverse backgrounds could develop common values
and loyalties;

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 26
c. educated individuals would have job skills;
d. education could lead to social improvement and economic
advancement;
e. tax supported, provided a free, basic, common, foundational education
for all children, grades 1-8;
f. in 1789, citizens argued for an expanded common school curriculum
(beyond the Latin School) and public grammar schools. This argument
is often referred to as the common school revival.
6. What was the role of John Dewey in American Education?
Dewey was the single largest influence in American education in the first
half of the 20th
century. His text called “Democracy and Education” was
considered by a group of 84 curriculum specialists to be one of the two
most important writings in education. Dewey’s theories were related to
progressivism. Dewey was a prominent educator, philosopher, and
psychologist. He is buried on the campus of the University of Vermont
next to the chapel.
7. What legislation affected education in the 20th
century? How did this
legislation impact public education, and how did it relate to changes in
society?
a. 1954–Brown vs. Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas–declared
separate inherently unequal and mandated school desegregation;
overturned; Plessy vs. Ferguson.
b. 1958–National Defense Education Act (NDEA)–Sputnik launch
reaffirmed the belief that the U.S. needed more math, science, and
social studies in the curriculum; provided money, teacher training,
teaching materials, and upgraded textbooks;
c. 1960s–social issues began to influence education–among them, a
stronger push for racial equality;
d. 1971–PARC vs. Pennsylvania–Pennsylvania agreed to provide
appropriate educational programs to handicapped children; all children
would have an opportunity to a free public education;
e. 1975–Public Law 92-142 Education for all Handicapped Children’s
Act–required all schools to provide a free appropriate public education
for all handicapped children; when possible, this education was to be
provided with non-handicapped children.
8. What were the Cardinal Principles issued by the NEA?

PAGE 27
A report issued by the NEA’s Committee for the Reorganization of
Secondary Education in 1918 that laid the framework for today’s
comprehensive high schools. The goals included:
a. health;
b. command of fundamental processes;
c. worthy home membership;
d. vocational preparation;
e. citizenship;
f. worthy use of leisure time;
g. ethical character.
9. What major criticisms were leveled at American schools during the
1950s? Were they the reactions to any events or publications?
Low academic standards that were viewed as synonymous with
progressivism; watered down curriculum; incompetent teachers; lack of
programming for the gifted students. Criticism crested with the launch of
Sputnik in 1957.
10. What recommendations did James Conant make concerning the high
school?
Twenty-one recommendations; among them:
a. comprehensive counseling programs to assist students in selecting
appropriate electives;
b. more individualized instruction;
c. ability grouping by subject;
d. a core academic curriculum, consisting of English, social studies, math,
and science;
e. relevant vocational programs;
f. special programs for slow readers;
g. programs for gifted students;
h. more choices in science and foreign languages;
i. a general education for all students;
j. elective courses for those planning to enter the world of work upon
graduation;
k. special and advanced courses for college-bound youth.

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11. What is the status of reforms initiated during the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s,
and 2000?
Whether the reforms of the early 1980s have significant long-term effects
on public education remains to be seen; . . . one of these days, educators,
parents, government officials, and others must look at the history of
education and learn from it.
12. What are some beliefs of Quintilian?
Quintilian believed that the ideal teacher should have the following
qualifications:
a. should assume a parental attitude toward students;
b. should be free from vice and should refuse to tolerate it in others;
c. should be genial, but not familiar;
d. should be strict, but not austere;
e. should speak of what is honorable, for the more admonishment, the less
punishment;
f. should control his temper;
g. should be free from affectations;
h. should be possessed of great industry;
i. any demands upon the class should be continuous, but not extravagant.
D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Trace the history of American Education beginning with Colonial
America.
During the early days of the United States, the 13 original colonies took on
distinctly different characteristics. For the most part, the colonies were
divided into three different groups: the New England colonies, the Middle
colonies, and the Southern colonies. The educational systems reflected the
religious beliefs of the citizens of each section.
The success of the American Revolution and the adoption of the
Constitution ended the colonial period and marked the beginning of the
national period. During the nation’s first 50 years, several important
developments occurred that affected education. The Constitution did not

PAGE 29
specifically address education. As a result of the Tenth Amendment
reserving to states items not included in the Constitution, education was
made a state responsibility. Thomas Jefferson laid the foundation for
public education in the United States with the introduction of his “Bill for
the More General Diffusion of Knowledge” in the Virginia assembly. The
federal government has been involved in education since the Land
Ordinance of 1785 was passed under the Articles of Confederation. This
act required each township to reserve lot #16 for the support of public
schools. Then in 1787, the Northwest Ordinance reinforced the 1785 act
by encouraging education as being important to good government,
happiness, and expressing a commitment for education. The Ohio Ena-
bling Act of 1802 began the current trend of outright grants to states for
education by the federal government.
The Academy Movement began in the mid 1700s and flourished until the
Civil War, when high schools began to emerge. Academies varied
considerably in organization, control, and support. Some were operated for
profit by private groups; some were under the control and support of
churches; and still others received some support and were controlled by
local government units. Programs offered by academies were diverse.
Academies were the forerunner to the current comprehensive high school
in the United States.
Elementary Education–infant schools that served children from four to
eight, began in Boston in 1818. A network of elementary schools was
created, and after further development of elementary education, infant
schools became synonymous with the lower levels of elementary schools.
Another model was the monitorial schools, where teachers taught their
brightest students who then would teach their peers.
Public education in the United States made significant progress during the
19th
century. Some of the reasons include the common school movement,
state laws and state boards of education, and permanent sources of
funding.
Development of Secondary School–the American high school evolved
from the Latin Grammar School and academies. In the late 1800s, private
academies gave way to publicly supported high schools. High schools in
the United States formally date from 1821 with the founding of the English
Classical School in Boston.
Education in the 20th
century–growth has been phenomenal. A
comprehensive public education system has developed that supports all
children, young children, pre-school, kindergarten, from approximately

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 30
five years of age to 18. John Dewey was the overriding influence over
education during the first half of the 20th
century.
The publication of NEA’s Cardinal Principles laid the foundation for
current comprehensive secondary schools. From 1970 to the present, the
progressive education movement has gained and lost momentum. Since
1950, several important court cases and specific legislation have dealt with
the eradication of discrimination in the public schools.
2. What effect did the depression have on American education?
Surprisingly, public education emerged from the depression in relatively
good condition. Professionals were united, the schools were viewed with a
great deal of confidence by the public, and states had dramatically
increased their contribution to public education.
3. Describe the Common School movement and its impact on the
American public education system.
Horace Mann began the common school movement. Researchists refer to
the common school as an institution that would provide its students with
basic cultural and literary skills. Common did not mean lowly or poor, but
expressed the idea of a cultural community in which ideas, experiences,
beliefs, aspirations, and values would eventually become uniquely
American. Public education was viewed as a vehicle for preparing children
from various ethnic and religious backgrounds for citizenship in the United
States as well as for participation in the economic system. The movement
sought to mold citizens into a force with common values, ideals, loyalties,
and purposes. The common school movement advanced the system of
public education at public expense and was the framework for the current
educational system.
4. Solomon says: 15 Proverbial Sayings
1. To handle yourself, use your head; to handle others, use your heart.
2. The smallest good deed is better than the grandest intention.
3. Politeness is a small price to pay for the good will and affection of others.
4. Be not angry that you cannot make others as you wish them to be since
you cannot make yourself as you wish to be.
5. Children need models more than they need critics.
6. Get all of the advice you can, and you will succeed; without it you will
fail.
7. Intelligent people think before they speak; what they say is then more
persuasive.

PAGE 31
8. Kind words are like honey; sweet to the taste and good for the health.
9. It is better to be patient than to be powerful. It is better to win control
over yourself than over whole nations.
10.Patient persuasion can break down the strongest resistance and can
even convince rulers.
11.Correction and discipline are good for children. If a child has his own
way, he will make his mother ashamed of him.
12.Be generous and you will be prosperous. Help others, and you will be
helped.
13.A gentle answer quiets anger, but a harsh one stirs it up.
14.You will have to live with the consequences of everything you say.
15.Teach a child how he should live, and he will remember it all his life.
5. What are some leadership secrets of Attila the Hun?
a. Lesson 1: Advice and Counsel
1. Written reports have purpose only if read by the king.
2. A king with chieftains who always agree with him reaps the
counsel of mediocrity.
3. A wise chieftain never kills the Hun bearing bad news. Rather, the
wise chieftain kills the Hun who fails to deliver bad news.
4. A chieftain who asks the wrong questions always hears the wrong
answers.
5. A wise chieftain never asks a question for which he doesn’t want
to hear the answer.
b. Lesson 2: Character
1. The greatness of a Hun is measured by the sacrifices he is willing
to make for the good of the nation.
2. A chieftain should always rise above pettiness and cause his Huns
to do the same.
3. A chieftain cannot win if he loses his nerve. He should be self-
confident and self-reliant and even if he does not win, he will
know he has done his best.
4. A chieftain does not have to be brilliant to be successful, but he
must have an insatiable hunger for victory, absolute belief in his

SCHOOLING (2002)
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cause and an invincible courage that enables him to resist those
who would otherwise discourage him.
5. Seldom are self-centered, conceited and self-admiring chieftains
great leaders, but they are great idolizers of themselves.
6. Great chieftains never take themselves too seriously.
7. A wise chieftain adapts–he doesn’t compromise.
8. Chieftains who drink with their Huns become one with them and
are no longer their chieftain.
9. Weak chieftains surround themselves with weak Huns.
10. Strong chieftains surround themselves with strong Huns.
11. As a chieftain achieves greater success, the jealousy others feel for
him intensifies.
c. Lesson 3: Courage
1. Huns must learn early that working through a hardship is an
experience that influences them all the days of their lives.
2. Successful Huns learn to deal with adversity and to overcome
mistakes.
3. A Hun can achieve anything for which he is willing to pay the
price. Competition thins out at the top of the ranks.
d. Lesson 4: Decision Making
1. Every decision involves some risk.
2. Time does not always improve a situation for a king or his Huns.
3. Fundamental errors are inescapable when the unqualified are
allowed to exercise judgment and make decisions.
4. Quick decisions are not always the best decisions. On the other
hand, unhurried decisions are not always the best decisions.
5. Chieftains should never rush into confrontations.
6. A chieftain’s confidence in his decision making preempts name-
dropping to his Huns.
7. It is unfortunate when final decisions are made by chieftains
headquartered miles away from the front, where they can only
guess at conditions and potentialities known only to the captain on
the battle field.
8. When victory will not be sweet, the chieftain must keep his Huns
from war.

PAGE 33
9. The ability to make difficult decisions separates chieftains from
Huns.
e. Lesson 5: Delegation
1. Wise chieftains never place their Huns in situations where their
weaknesses will prevail over their strengths.
2. Good Huns normally achieve what their chieftain expects from
them.
3. A wise chieftain never expects his Huns to act beyond their
wisdom and understanding.
4. A wise chieftain always gives tough assignments to Huns who can
rise to the occasion.
5. Abdication is not delegation. Abdication is a sign of weakness.
Delegation is a sign of strength.
f. Lesson 6: Developing Chieftains
1. Strong chieftains always have strong weaknesses. A king’s duty is
to make a chieftain’s strengths prevail.
2. Huns learn less from success than they do from failure.
3. Huns learn much faster when faced with adversity.
4. A good chieftain takes risks by delegating to an inexperienced Hun
in order to strengthen his leadership abilities.
5. The experience of Huns must be structured to allow them to
broaden and deepen themselves to develop the character they will
need when appointed a chieftain.
6. Huns are best prepared to become chieftains when given
appropriate challenges to successively higher levels of
responsibility.
7. If it were easy to be a chieftain, everyone would be one.
8. Without challenge, a Hun’s potential is never realized.
9. Appropriate stress is essential in developing chieftains.
g. Lesson 7: Diplomacy and Politics
1. When in political war, a Hun must always keep an eye to the rear.
2. The essence of Hunnish victory lies in the answers to the questions
Where? and When.
3. Huns should engage only in wars they can win.

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4. Huns may enter war as the result of failed diplomacy; however,
war may be necessary for diplomacy to begin.
5. For Huns, conflict is a natural state.
6. Huns make enemies only on purpose.
7. Huns never take by force what can be gained by diplomacy.
8. Chieftains should remember that hospitality, warmth, and courtesy
will captivate even the most oppressive foe.
9. Chieftains are often betrayed by those they trust most.
h. Lesson 8: Goals
1. Superficial goals lead to superficial results.
2. As a nation, we would accomplish more if Huns behaved as though
national goals were as important to them as personal goals.
3. Critical to a Hun’s success is a clear understanding of what the
king wants.
4. A Hun’s goal should always be worthy of his efforts.
5. A Hun without a purpose will never know when he has achieved it.
6. A Hun’s conformance does not always result in desired
performance.
7. Chieftains should always aim high, going after things that will
make a difference rather than seeking the safe path of mediocrity.
i. Lesson 9: Leaders and Leadership
1. Kings should always appoint their best Huns as chieftains, no
matter how much they are needed in their current positions.
2. Never appoint acting chieftains. Put the most capable Hun in
charge, give him both responsibility and authority, then hold him
accountable.
3. A wise chieftain never depends on luck. Rather, he always trusts
his future to hard work, stamina, tenacity, and a positive attitude.
4. A wise chieftain knows he is responsible for the welfare of his
Huns and acts accordingly.
5. Being a leader of the Huns is often a lonely job.
6. Once committed to action, chieftains must press for victory, not for
stalemate–and surely not for compromise.

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7. Shared risk-taking will weld the relationship of a chieftain and his
Huns.
8. Strong chieftains stimulate and inspire the performance of their
Huns.
9. The best chieftains develop the ability to ask the right questions at
the right time.
10. A chieftain can never be in charge if he rides in the rear.
j. Lesson 10: Perceptions and Publicity
1. In tough times, the nation will always call the meanest chieftain to
lead.
2. A Hun who takes himself too seriously has lost his perspective.
3. A Hun’s perception is reality for him.
4. Huns who appear to be busy are not always working.
5. It is best if your friends and foes speak well of you; however, it is
better for them to speak poorly of you than not at all. When
nothing can be said of a Hun, he has probably accomplished
nothing very well.
6. Contrary to what most chieftains think, you’re not remembered by
what you did in the past, but by what most Huns think you did.
k. Lesson 11: Personal Achievement
1. There is more nobility in being a good Hun than in being a poor
chieftain.
2. Even the Romans have the strength to endure the misfortunes they
bring on others.
3. If all Huns were blind, a one-eyed warrior would be king.
4. Great chieftains accept failure at some things in order to excel in
more important ones.
5. Every Hun is responsible for shaping his life’s circumstances and
experiences into success–no other Hun, and certainly no Roman,
can do for a Hun what he neglects to do for himself.
l. Lesson 12: Problems and Solutions
1. Huns should be taught to focus on opportunities rather than on
problems.
2. Some Huns have solutions for which there are no problems.

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m. Lesson 13: Reward and Punishment
1. If an incompetent chieftain is removed, seldom do we appoint his
highest-ranking subordinate to his place. For when a chieftain has
failed, so likewise have his subordinate leaders.
2. If you tell a Hun he is doing a good job when he isn’t, he will not
listen long and, worse, will not believe praise when it is justified.
n. Lesson 14: Tolerance
1. Every Hun has value–even if only to serve as a bad example.
2. The error in appointing an incompetent chieftain is in leaving him
in a position of authority over other Huns.
3. To experience the strength of chieftains we must tolerate some of
their weaknesses.
4. Suffer long for mediocre but loyal Huns. Suffer not for competent
but disloyal Huns.
o. Lesson 15: Training
1. Adequate training of Huns is essential to war and cannot be
disregarded by chieftains in more peaceful times.
2. Teachable skills are for developing Huns. Learnable skills are
reserved for chieftains.
3. The consequence for not adequately training your Huns is their
failure to accomplish that which is expected of them.
Source: Wess, R. (1987). Leadership secrets of Attila the Hun. New York: Warner Books. Adapted
with special permission.
6. What was The New England Primer?
The New England Primer was a textbook used by students in New England
and in other English settlements in North America. It was first printed in
Boston in 1690 by Benjamin Harris who had published a similar volume in
London. The New England primer followed a tradition of combining the
study of the alphabet with Bible reading.
Exams of alphabet rhymes that teach moral values as well as reading in the
New England Primer included the following:
a. in Adam’s fall we sinned all;
b. thy life to mend this book attend;

PAGE 37
c. the cat doth play and after slay;
d. a dog will bite a thief at night;
e. an eagle’s flight is out of sight;
f. the idle fool is whipped at school.
7. What was the Dame School?
The Dame School was like an informal day care center. It involved parents
leaving their children with a neighborhood lady (a “dame” as such ladies
were then called) who would teach their letters (abc’s), numbers, and
prayers while she went about her daily household tasks.
8. What is the history of kindergarten?
The first United States kindergarten was founded by Elizabeth Peabody in
1873. The first kindergarten founded in the world was founded by
Friedrich Froebel. Froebel is known as the “Father of Kindergarten”
because he developed the first kindergarten in Germany in 1837. Froebel’s
kindergarten developed theories and practices that are still used today in
kindergarten classrooms. Froebel believed that children need to have play
time in order to learn. He believed kindergarten should be a place for
children to grow and learn from their social interaction with other children.
The first kindergarten was established to help children of poverty and
those who had special needs. Many nurseries coincided with kindergartens
that were operated by philanthropically minded women. These early
nurseries and kindergartens existed to serve families that were destitute.
The early philosophical view of kindergarten was believed to be that
through systematic play the children are able to learn to discriminate,
analyze, share, and solve problems.
In 1872, kindergartens gained support from the National Education
Association. In 1884, the NEA established a department of kindergarten
instruction. Over time, and through the efforts of many people, the
kindergarten has worked its way into American education, both public and
private.
9. Who was Horace Mann?
Horace Mann is considered “The Father of American Education.” He was
born in Franklin, Massachusetts, in 1796. Mann educated himself by
reading volumes in the Franklin Town Library. He was self-educated. He
later was admitted to Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island and
went on to study law at Litchfield Law School.

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In 1827, Mann won a seat in the state legislature in Massachusetts and in
1833 ran for State Senate and won. Throughout these years Mann
continued a highly successful law practice. In 1837, Horace Mann left his
law practice and accepted the position of the newly founded Secretary of
Education in Massachusetts. During his years as Secretary of Education,
he published 12 annual reports on all aspects of his work and programs. He
emphasized in his writings the integral relationships between education,
freedom, and Republican government.
Horace Mann believed that a common school would be a “great equalizer.”
He believed that, through education, crime sharply declined along with
fraud, violence, and moral vices. He believed the common school
movement would have a positive impact on American society.
In 1848, Mann resigned as Secretary of Education and went on to the U.S.
House of Representatives. Later he accepted the Presidency of Antioch
College for Negroes in 1852. He stayed at the Antioch College for
Negroes until his death on August 27, 1859. Horace Mann once said: “I
believe you to treasure up in your hearts these my parting words: Be
ashamed to die until you have won some victory for Humanity.”
10. What were the Latin Grammar Schools?
The first Latin Grammar School was established in Boston in 1635. These
schools were originally designed for only sons of certain social cases who
were destined for leadership positions in church, state, or courts. The study
of Latin and Greek and their literatures was blended with the religious
denominationalism emanating from the heritage of the Protestant
Reformation.
The only students considered for the Latin Grammar Schools were males
who belonged to a certain social class in society. Girls were not considered
for these schools because all of the world leaders and important “persons”
were males from the upper class brackets of society. Boys did not enter the
schools until after they learned the basics of their own language. They
needed the foundations that were required to learn the basics of Latin and
eventually Greek. The Latin Grammar Schools taught reading, writing, and
arithmetic. The purpose of the Latin Grammar Schools was to prepare the
boys for the entrance test for Harvard College. There was great emphasis
placed upon the ability to read and speak Greek and Latin. The Latin
Grammar School’s distinct purpose was in preparing boys for higher
learning.
11. How was the Hornbook used?

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The hornbook was used by school children for several centuries, starting in
the mid-15th
century in Europe and America. The hornbook consisted of a
wooden paddle with lessons tacked on and was covered by a piece of
transparent horn. The wood paddle of the hornbook was approximately
2-¾” x 5” with an easy to hold handle. A hole was put in the handle so a
leather thong could be tied to it, and the child could carry it on his/her belt
or around his/her neck.
The lessons consisted of different combinations of the following: the
alphabet, vowel and consonant combinations, the Lord’s Prayer, a form of
a cross, and a praise of the Trinity. These were handwritten on a piece of
parchment, then tacked to the wooden paddle. The hornbook was used to
keep the lessons from being soiled by the child. The horn of oxen and
sheep were primarily used. As time went on, hornbooks were also made of
a variety of other materials. They were made from ivory, various metals,
leather, and even cardboard.
12. What were the McGuffey Readers?
McGuffey Readers were a planned series of readers that were very
moralistic. They presented the white, Anglo-Saxon Protestant as the model
American. Rev. William Holmes McGuffey had already planned a series
of readers. A publishing company called Truman and Smith based in
Cincinnati, Ohio, became interested in the idea of publishing school texts
and contacted McGuffey. The McGuffey Readers selected materials from
a variety of sources. Sources were considered remarkable literary works
and exerted a greater influence upon literary tastes in America more than
any other book, excluding the Bible.
13. What was the Lancasterian System of Teaching?
Joseph Lancaster brought into existence a system of education whereby
children could be educated cheaply. However, the quality of this education
was questionable. The Lancasterian system of teaching emphasized it was
the job of the teacher to teach large number of students in one large hall.
Sometimes up to 300 students. Monitors were used as a method of “crowd
control,” hence the schools also became known as monitorial schools.
More advanced students had the responsibility of assisting in teaching
those students below them and so on down the line until virtually everyone
within the system had a hand in the teaching and learning process.
Lancaster’s concept of teaching in this manner was theoretically very
sound, however, competent teachers were hard to find during his time.
Given the vast number of students who were involved, monitorial teaching
did not come to be the success that Lancaster had envisioned. Even though

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this system of teaching was considered a failure, the Lancasterian System
of Teaching did much to pave the way for future educational endeavors in
the realm of public education.
14. What was the Normal School?
James G. Carter, a member of the Massachusetts legislature is called the
“Father of the American Normal School.” Normal schools attempted to
provide the perspective teacher with a laboratory for learning, using model
classrooms as a place to practice their new skills. The emphasis in Normal
schools was on common, everyday learning.
The colleges, with their classical curriculums, looked down on the normal
schools. The normal school crusade advocated teaching as a respectable
profession. At Teachers College, Columbia University, a required course
of study continued to evolve, including more elective subjects and a
broader liberal arts perspective, resulting in the curriculum that is currently
in practice today in teacher education.
15. Why is the history of African American education so complex?
The history of African American education is extremely complex. A brief
outline of the W.E.B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington conflicts helps to
illustrate the emotions and ideas involved in this significant piece of
history.
W.E.B. DuBois was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from
Harvard. He was the founder of the NAACP. DuBois is credited with
writing 19 books in his lifetime. He is responsible for making tremendous
strides forward for the African American community. He began as a
supporter for Booker T. Washington and ended his life as a communist in
Ghana.
Booker T. Washington was born a slave in Franklin County, Virginia. He
did not feel the pride that DuBois felt for his ancestry. He was probably a
mixed race child. Washington was appointed head of the Tuskegee
Institute in 1881. He took Tuskegee from a backward to a progressively
modern town.
Booker T. Washington taught the newly freed African Americans to be
teachers, craftsmen, and businessmen and to make their own way in the
world. He stressed learning by doing the task and not by theories or
abstract ideas. He believed that with training the African Americans would

PAGE 41
become economically indispensable and the white American society would
open its door to them.
W.E.B. DuBois believed the “Talented Tenth” of the African American
population should be able to be more than farmers and “money-makers.”
The tenth of the population that he wrote about was the portion he thought
should receive a classical education just like white leaders of society.
Booker T. Washington was criticized for ignoring “the talented tenth” and
was content to leave the Negro forever as a second-class citizen.
Washington advocated manual training for African Americans so they
could work their way up the economic ladder. However, DuBois would
settle absolutely for no less than equality. DuBois had been criticized for
ignoring the small strides that Washington’s work accomplished and for
concentrating only on the ultimate goal, total equality. Washington found
himself under heavy criticism for working too closely with the white
leaders and allowing himself to compromise his beliefs for small
insubstantial laws for African Americans. Washington was able to adjust
to the changes in society, while DuBois was not.
The NAACP might have been more pragmatic under Washington;
however, the leadership of DuBois gave the NAACP a more militant
intention. The conflict between Washington and DuBois spanned many
years, but they both made significant changes in the lives of African
Americans through hard work and solid effort.
16. How did the division of the school into grades develop?
The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (especially
Act 3) set aside land for the building and operation of schools, and
provided that education be necessary to good citizenship. One-room
schools flourished and usually housed 30 to 40 students of all ages and
levels, with one teacher. As more and more children were attending
school, the one-room schools could no longer handle the demand for
education because all the children were at so many different levels and
ages. The most practical way to overcome the crowded and run down
buildings was to build new buildings, with many different classrooms, and
some even had lunchrooms and gymnasiums. Eventually, students began
consolidating and coming to the schools from surrounding communities.
This added to the need for larger buildings.
Teachers had training to teach certain subjects and levels. But one question
remained, what was the best way to split up the children with respect to
their levels and needs? The best answer they found was age. At different
ages, the students had different needs, and the best way to meet these
needs was to group everyone of the same age brackets together.

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Initially, many of the small schools grouped students together with several
ages in one room. Grades 1, 2, and 3 would be together, while grades 4, 5,
6, 7, and 8 were in another area. If the students moved on past their level,
they would usually attend colleges or universities. As populations grew
and expanded westward, the need for larger school systems became clear.
The grades were separated into their own levels, and mandates were set for
what had to be taught at each grade level, the rise of elementary and
secondary schools came about, and middle schools were added years later.
In general, today, we operate on a 12-grade level system, plus
kindergarten. In studying the history of education, it is amazing to see how
schools have grown from one room buildings to large corporations with
many schools to accommodate the youth of America.
17. Who was Jane Addams?
History of education courses mention little, if anything, about Jane
Addams. Born September 6, 1860, in Cedarville, Illinois, to a well-known
legislator, Jane Addams had the opportunity to travel. While traveling in
London, Jane Addams saw something that would change her life forever.
Jane saw Toynbee Hall; a place for the less fortunate. Toynbee Hall was a
building that had a library, swimming pool, gymnasium, and countless
activities. It was located right in the center of one of the poorest parts of
London. She believed she could set something like this up in America.
Jane Addams found the perfect building right in the middle of Chicago’s
poorest area, the 19th
ward. On September 18, 1889, Jane purchased this
building from Charles Hull, and named it Hull House. Hull House was a
place where people could go to escape from their pitiful living conditions.
Jane wanted the house mostly for children. She wanted children to live and
play in a clean and healthy environment.
At Hull House, Jane Addams started Chicago’s first kindergarten and day-
care for children of working mothers. Jane Addams and colleagues
organized girls clubs, boys clubs and countless activities to keep the
children in a healthy environment and off of the dirty streets. Jane Addams
placed her own collection of art and treasures from all of her places of
travel because she believed that everyone deserved the opportunity to see,
know, and be in the presence of beauty.
By word of mouth, people learned of Hull House. Training of American
citizenship for skilled labor soon took place. Health clinics were offered,
immunization shots and medical care was also given to anyone in need.
The doors were always open. By the year 1900 there were over 100 of
these settlement houses in the United States. Hull House became an
affirmative alternative to being on the streets and in the bars.

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Jane Addams wrote books and spoke in public for many causes including
women’s pension laws and housing laws. Her books often focused on
telling and explaining Hull House and its effect on working women,
children, and poverty. She belonged to the National American Women’s
Suffrage Association and fought for the right of women and black people
to vote, and in 1911, she was made Vice President of the association.
In 1909, Jane Addams became a member of the newly formed National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Jane Addams
supported Teddy Roosevelt’s new party campaign, and in 1914, during
World War I, she was a strong advocate for people. In 1931, Jane Addams
was finally awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Jane Addams had many accomplishments in her lifetime, but her greatest
achievement was her lifelong effort at Hull House. In Jane’s helping to
meet the basic needs of a person, such as comfort, safety, rest, nutrition,
medical care, friends, and love while providing educational instruction, she
made it possible for children to use their abilities and talents to learn and
have an education. Jane Addams was a giant in her lifetime. She benefited
women, children, and all of humankind because of her dedication and love
of the human race.
18. How did the role of the principal develop?
Principals have been in American schools for more than a century. In fact,
there are more school principals than any other administrative office in
education. The principal serves as sort of a middle person or a liaison
between central administration and the teachers.
The original principal was actually called a principal teacher. A principal
teacher was required to fulfill many roles in the community. They were
teachers, town clerks, grave diggers, church officials, court messengers,
and sometimes even the church bell ringers. The concept of the principal
teacher started at the high school level and eventually caught on at the
primary level of education. Eventually, the teaching and other duties that
were required by the principal teacher became too time consuming and
they concentrated on managing the schools. This is when they dropped the
“teacher” in their role as principal teacher. Today, the role of the principal
is much like it was at the time they stopped teaching. Principals’ main
focus now is on leadership and the managing of the schools as well as
serving as a liaison between the teachers and central administration.
19. How did the role of the superintendent develop?
Early in the 19th
century, Horace Mann developed a style of educational
leadership and administration. It was a practical approach to large scale

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education where a senior teacher utilized aides or advanced students to
teach groups of other students. This practice of monitorial education
eventually died out; however, it did serve as a model for the late 19th
century schools in America.
Educational administration was brought about in the mid 19th
century
following the development of principal teachers. Educational
administration
was too important to be left to teachers to manage without the proper
training and education. People believed that leadership needed to be
centralized. Trends in education can be linked to those of society.
Educational institutions have grown large and complex to the point that a
separate area of advanced study is necessary at the master, education
specialist, and doctoral levels. The first training program for school
administrators was established during the early years of this century at
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Until this time,
administration was part of teaching. The term “Superintendent of Schools”
grew out of the terminology of the times, e.g. Superintendent of the
Railroad and (Industrial) Plant Superintendent. School administration is
referred to often as an applied field that combines business and education,
and until recently did not require a definitive training program.
Source: Campbell, Fleming, Newell, & Bennion. A history of thought and practice in educational
administration. Campbell, D. (1974). If you don’t know where you’re going, you’ll
probably end up somewhere else. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership. Adapted
with permission.
20. The Greeks – Who are some key people and their contribution to
education?
a. Sappho (c. 630-572 B.C.)
1. voice of a woman writing about herself;
2. emphasized the finishing school concept–education for a social
role in society.
b. Protagoras (c. 490-421 B.C.)
1. first Greek to justify supporting himself by charging fees (salary)
for teaching; he was a sophist;
2. believed properly instructed citizens can participate in the
governing process;
3. emphasized a practical curriculum;
4. stressed the importance of oratorical skills.
c. Socrates (c. 470-399 B.C.)

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1. knowledge comes through logic and contemplation;
2. ideas, not things, are the true nature of reality;
3. virtuous few should rule the undisciplined many;
4. developed person-centered education, emphasizing beliefs and
character;
5. disapproved of teaching by “telling”;
6. goal of education is to build and classify values, preferences, and
morals;
7. sought people to define themselves by being in tune with their true
nature.
d. Plato (c. 428-347 B.C.)
1. founded Academy;
2. developed a theory that for every “thing” that can be perceived
there exists a basic or foundational organizing principle or idea
(idealism);
3. wrote The Republic which emphasized two premises:
a. states should be governed only by knowledgeable people of
virtue;
b. all should contribute to a harmonious state based on aptitude;
educators sort out people according to criteria; amount and type
of education based on expected role in society; (forerunner to
the tracking system);
4. believed that body limits knowledge;
5. believed learning is rediscovery or recollection of knowledge
brought to consciousness through reflections.
e. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
1. developed peripatetic school; lecturing while walking in the
Lyceum, a grove near Athens;
2. believed that the inferior status of women, children, and slaves was
part of natural law;
3. emphasized liberal education as a means to cultivate habits that
develop moral and rational virtues, all vocational study is by
definition not liberal (liberating);
4. liberal arts enlarge and expand a person’s choices and behaviors;

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5. believed biology was the most important subject;
6. believed the body is the road to knowledge: heart is the seat of the
senses;
7. happiness is the supreme good.
21. The Romans – Who are some key people and their contribution to
education?
a. Cicero (106-43 B.C.)
1. 55 B.C. On Oratory – first Latin exposition of Greek educational
method and ideal; divides Roman education into two periods:
a. period of purely Roman ideals and practices;
b. period in which Greek influence became more popular;
2. believed in thorough understanding of Latin before Greek;
3. advocated broad, general education as necessary to oratorical
education;
4. influenced the Renaissance ideal of education: Latin culture,
literature, and language established as core curriculum; human
spirit reflected in fine arts and literature.
b. Quintilian (35-95 A.D.)
1. the most prominent Roman writer on education;
2. viewed orator as the citizen who used all his skill in the service of
the state;
3. talent essential to learning;
4. opposed corporal punishment of children;
5. emphasized human practices, individuality, and play;
6. orator believed to be a skilled speaker and the most virtuous citizen
who employed his skill in the service of the state;
7. developed 12 books for training of the orator, The Institutes of
Oratory, a work that became a sourcebook for the Humanist that
included:
a. stressing individual differences;
b. beginning reading with Greek rather than Latin;

PAGE 47
c. recommended public instead of private schools because school
is the society in which children learn from each other and the
teacher;
d. list of “great books” to form basis of education;
e. emphasis on memory and morals.
c. Hypatia (c. 360-415 A.D.)
1. revealed the role of Roman women as cultured, educated
individuals who could be politically powerful;
2. only woman known to have held public chair of philosophy in
Europe.
d. Augustine (354-430 A.D.)
1. City of God–his most prolific work;
2. liberal education is useful in both church and state;
3. goals of education–to strengthen faith.
e. Boethius (c. 480-524 A.D.)
1. translated Aristotle’s Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle,
that became the leading text in logic for the next seven centuries;
2. wrote a famous book that placed culture in Christian setting;
summarized earlier writings of ethics and philosophy;
3. for centuries he was regarded as a great educational authority.
f. Cassiodorus (c. 483-575 A.D.)
1. his work became the educational syllabus of monasteries;
2. influenced the collecting, translating, and copying of manuscripts
that became the outline for the liberal arts.
22. The Monastics – Who are some key people and their contributions to
education?
a. Benedict (c. 480-543)
1. one of monasticism’s major leaders;
2. he developed an approach to government (Benedict’s Rule) that
came to be followed by most European establishments;
3. he assumed poverty, chastity, and obedience;
4. recommended restraint in consumption of food and wine;

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5. proposed a system of government based on the Roman family
(father as head of order making all rules);
6. recognized the value of manual labor in education.
b. Charlemagne (742-814)
1. noted for his military strength;
2. ruled for four decades;
3. renaissance peaked under Charlemagne’s rule;
4. wrote capitularies (letters of advice) on schools that called upon
secular and ecclesiastical authorities to promote education.
c. Alcuin (735-804)
1. implemented educational reform recommended by Charlemagne;
2. wrote texts on education that dealt with methods of education,
duties of students, and grammar;
3. much of his work directed toward catechetical form of teaching
(question and answer);
4. emphasized close relationship between liberal arts and spiritual
knowledge;
5. emphasized intellectual training necessary for moral improvement.
d. Guibert of Nogent (c. 1064-1128)
1. emphasized education and training of the medieval personality;
2. wrote his life story in three books; early years, life as a monk, and
years as an abbot (the superior of a monastery for men);
3. guilt and suffering revealed in work suggests the evolution of the
“psyche.”
e. Peter of Abelard (1079-1142)
1. life illustrates emergence of ambitious, professional teachers;
2. competed with the school of Notre Dame before heading it;
3. condemned for his theological works;
4. influenced the intellectual climate leading to the birth of the
universities and a critical study of theology;
5. considered by many as the greatest professor who ever lived.

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f. Heloise (Eloise) (c. 1100-1164)
1. well educated for women of her time;
2. wife of Peter Abelard;
3. was sent to become a nun;
4. later became abbess at Argentueil (abbess–a woman who is a
superior over a convent of nuns).
g. Euphemia of Wherwell (c. 1200-1257)
1. abbess of monastery of Wherwell in England;
2. emphasized women’s role in medieval education;
3. was an excellent administrator.
h. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1274)
1. dedicated to the Benedictine order by parents at five years of age;
2. studied liberal arts and philosophy of Aristotle at Naples;
3. his best known work was the Summa Theologica;
4. believed nature wanted to produce males; women were wicked and
defective–weak in mind, body, and will; woman should regard man
as her natural master and submit to his disciplines;
5. perfected Scholasticism.
23. The Humanists – Who are some key people and their contributions to
education?
a. Vittorine da Feltre (c. 1378-1446)
1. Renaissance humanist; left no writings;
2. believed classical literature could be reconciled with Christian life;
3. founded a school in Venice for children of wealthy merchants;
4. founded a school in Mantua for children of rich;
5. developed scholarship programs whereby wealthy subsidized the
poor;
6. believed in a pleasant school environment, with physical activity
being an important part of education.
b. Christine de Pisan (c. 1364-after 1429)
1. had an education typical of aristocratic and wealthy middle class
girls; manners, morals, etiquette, reading, and writing;
2. criticized for representing herself in court following her husband’s
death–an unusual event in her day;

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3. contributed to the beginning of public debate about women’s rights
and feminine consciousness;
4. through her writing, criticized the number one poet of France, Jean
de Meun, regarding his attitude towards women;
5. wrote love poems;
6. wrote a book for women on how to get along in the world and
solve their problems and a poem on the triumph of Joan of Arc.
c. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)
1. prolific writer;
2. believed ignorance was enemy of Christ;
3. major work, In Praise of Folley, satirized excess of society;
4. pacifist who objected to war;
5. believed in early childhood learning without corporal punishment;
6. believed the best education was to return to Ancient Greeks and
Romans;
7. believed the aim of education to be social–the “good man”;
8. stressed that faith and good work resulted in a well-ordered social
structure;
9. believed a liberal education produced an ideal society;
10. believed in the public school–not tutors;
11. believed that education by experience contained risks;
12. believed that knowledge and history were better than philosophy as
a theory.
d. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
1. was a “political scientist,” not a teacher or scholar;
2. developed political theories from political activity in Florence, Italy;
3. became a political writer as a result of political life;
4. studied qualities of an ideal republic;
5. believed the voice of the people needed to be taken seriously;
6. placed emphasis on classical works and his own experience;
7. wrote The Prince. In this book, Machiavelli believed the role of the
prince was to gain and maintain power because success or failure
of the city depended on the leadership of the prince.

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24. The Reformers – Who are some key people and their contributions to
education?
a. John Wycliffe (1320-1384)
1. Oxford lecturer, later ordained a priest;
2. believed that “charity begins at home”–England needed the tributes
paid to Rome more than Rome did;
3. did not believe church or priest should have property; believers
should own property in common;
4. translated Bible into English with the assistance of two priests who
were poor;
5. charged that church corruption heightened peasant dissatisfaction
that lead to the peasant riots of 1381;
6. believed that everyone should read the Bible.
b. John Huss (1369-1415)
1. the most popular preacher of his time;
2. believed in realism rather than nominalism that was favored by
Germans (nominalism, the theory that only individuals and no
abstract entities exist);
3. leader of the Bohemian reformist part movement;
4. condemned and burned at the stake.
c. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
1. after earning a Master of Arts Degree, entered Augustinian
monastery;
2. ordained a priest;
3. appointed lecturer in philosophy at the University of Wittenberg;
4. later studied theology and received a doctorate;
5. believed one could receive the grace of God through faith;
6. he favored movement away from the Roman Catholic Church
because of the authority of the pope, “sale” of indulgences and
certain sacraments;
7. in 1517 he distributed 95 Theses: reform propositions posted at
Wittenberg;
8. in 1521 he was declared an outlaw;

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9. believed education was necessary to Christian life: family, state,
and church comprised three spheres of human life that contributed
to salvation;
10. composed hymns;
11. translated Bible into German;
12. emphasized that each person was responsible for salvation; means
to salvation found in scripture;
13. believed in state obligation to fund education;
14. wanted free education;
15. believed spiritual and secular education complemented each other.
d. Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560)
1. friend and colleague of Martin Luther;
2. he systematized and implemented many of Luther’s reforms,
resulting in demand for popular education;
3. saw humanism as a means to promote evangelical principles
through eloquence and usefulness;
4. believed traditional studies aided clear expression;
5. believed history encouraged patriotism and reflected the human
experience;
6. emphasized the use of humanism as an educational tool;
7. believed knowledge should be judged by its purpose;
8. wrote and translated texts, summaries, and theological papers;
9. was a consultant in school reform (especially with universities);
10. said learning should be divided into three areas:
a. thinking and reading (classical languages, logic, and rhetoric);
b. natural reality (physics, cosmology, physiology, and
“psychology”);
c. ethics and politics for practical life.
e. Ignatius Loyola (c. 1492-1556)
1. Spanish knight who became a major figure in Catholic
Reformation;
2. decided to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land; later became a
priest;

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3. his lifestyle and preaching often came under suspicion;
4. began study as a Dominican priest, but formed his own religious
group in 1534 that was approved by the Pope in 1537; in 1540 his
Society of Jesuits was officially recognized as a religious order in
the Catholic Church;
5. during his life he approved the foundation of 39 colleges and
universities of which 33 actually opened;
6. believed all education had a religious purpose;
7. believed that studies should help others to discover God’s work in
the world; theology supreme in the curriculum;
8. goal of education was to make each person a more useful member
of the church and citizen of the community and the state;
9. education transformed society as well as the individual;
10. developed a practical approach to the curriculum;
11. systematized teacher education.
f. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670)
1. aim was to compel savages to civilization, thus the church had a
major role in education;
2. Protestant born in Moravia (now Czech Republic) near Hungarian
border;
3. called for Protestant unity; strongly opposed to Roman Catholics;
4. emphasized child development as an appropriate determination for
child readiness in learning;
5. emphasized a pleasant physical environment for the child;
6. emphasized the use of pictures in textbooks;
7. believed women as intelligent as men but held a primarily
household role;
8. devoted life to the church;
9. believed ideas come direct from sense perception;
10. believed children should teach each other;
11. wanted student dramas to aid learning;
12. his general attitudes were shared by colonial leaders in New
England from 1630s to 1670s.

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25. The New Educators – Who are some key people and their
contributions to education?
a. John Locke (1632-1704)
1. an Englishman known as “America’s philosopher”;
2. a student of medicine and experimental science;
3. a lecturer at Oxford; influenced political theory and epistemology;
4. recommended empowering people through the legislature under
jurisdiction of electors;
5. some of Locke’s thoughts concerning education (1693):
a. criticized corporal punishment;
b. recommended tutors instead of schools that provided peer
influence to be “unlearned”;
c. wanted four outcomes of educating “gentleman”:
1. virtue–result of good religious training;
2. wisdom–result of the mind and experience;
3. good breeding;
4. learning–thought and understanding to replace rote learning,
Latin, and Greek;
6. advocated the study of sciences;
7. emphasized utility as the basis for selecting curriculum;
8. formulated tabula rasa theory of the mind; knowledge comes from
experience;
9. believed the emphasis on utility fit the needs of new world
societies.
b. Jean Jacque Rousseau (1712-1778)
1. a moralist who attacked the concept that progress results from
advances in science and technology;
2. believed humans are by nature good and society’s institutions
corrupt them;
3. emphasized using the environment for learning;
4. wrote Emile, his major work that described the ideal education of a
young boy; rejected original sin and attacked fundamentals of
Christianity; author was banished to Switzerland; book was burned

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in France; book emphasized that children learn corruption of
society through field trips to the city and the study of the
humanities;
5. highly criticized by Voltaire, who resented Rousseau’s popularity;
6. advocated state-funded, secular system of education;
7. emphasized moral training provided by a tutor and parents setting a
good example; nature to be tutor’s guide;
8. children learn from the consequences of actions rather than
punishment;
9. woman’s role was to serve man; her education should be planned
in relationship to her role in the man’s world; believed women
were not naturally as good as men;
10. believed in justifiable rebellion whenever a government failed to
satisfy the people it ruled.
c. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
1. feminist theorist and writer of pedagogic stories;
2. through her writing, developed argument for extending human
rights to both sexes;
3. believed submissiveness of women that was learned was not
nature;
4. believed women and men should live equally in relation to each
other;
5. challenged male supremacy through her best known book,
Vindication of the Rights of Women;
6. believed education was a means to achieve a new society;
7. schools should be agents of change;
8. became a leading political radical; first feminist philosopher;
9. emphasized that the power of reason had been excluded from
women’s education; rational education would produce independent
women and equality between sexes;
10. recommended national system of education to produce
independent women;
11. proposed an elementary school: no distinctions on basis of sex or
class; stressed school uniforms to eliminate distinctions.

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d. Victor of Aveyron (1788-1828)
1. considered as the “wild boy” found wandering in southern France;
given to the care of Dr. Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard, a physician
interested in the study of retardation and sensory impairment;
2. years of training in social, sensory, emotional, and speech skills
showed progression in all these areas except emotional;
3. reflected a new meaning for definitions of who could be educated
and to what extent (birth of special education); tested learning
experimentally;
4. developed numerous materials for learning; laid groundwork for
Montessori.
e. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
1. Swiss pioneer in “psychologizing” education;
2. credited with new method and approach to elementary teaching;
3. emphasized that experience is better than words;
4. operated “poor school” experiment for four years, taking poor and
orphaned children and working them hard for meager pay as a
means to teach them skills necessary for their “condition” or
station in life;
5. believed schools should be modeled on good home; love must
guide the teacher and firm discipline maintained;
6. believed aim of education is harmonious development of human
power and development of social responsibility;
7. provision must be made for teacher education and that teachers can
learn skills in experimental schools;
8. remembered as the “Father of Modern Elementary Education,” but
his colleagues developed many of the ideas with which he was
credited.
f. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852)
1. his early education took place in a girls school;
2. was an apprentice to an agriculturalist to become a forester;
3. saw value in learning;
4. in 1826 published The Education of Man, an account of his
educational theories and principles;

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5. in 1837 opened the Institute for the Occupations of Little Children
after several other school ventures;
6. developed “gifts” and “occupations,” emphasized self activity
which was the basic principle of Froebel’s philosophy.
26. The Americans – Who are some key people and their contributions to
education?
a. Bernardino de Sahagun (1499-1590)
1. Spaniard who joined Franciscan order, moved to Mexico City at
age 20;
2. provided instruction to Aztecs in Laine;
3. wrote History of Ancient Mexico; text first written in Nahuatl then
translated to Spanish; illustrated by Mexicans who learned
European art techniques.
b. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648-1695)
1. nun, poet, playwright, feminist, and educator; nicknamed “The
Tenth Muse” (muse absorbed in thought);
2. at an early age she asked to be allowed to dress as a male so she
could attend the university;
3. gained reputation as an intellectual;
4. joined a convent to pursue studies instead of marriage; poor health
caused her to leave; later joined another convent where religious
life and scholarship was more compatible;
5. her life reflected inventive responses of women on the “American
Frontier”;
6. accused of rebelling against masculine authority of the church
because she criticized a Jesuit sermon;
7. advocated equal education for women and men.
c. Christopher Dock (1698-1771)
1. a Mennonite; became a schoolmaster and wrote hymns and poetry;
2. believed the best teaching methods were those that emphasized
Christian method for educating children;
3. believed equal education for rich and poor;

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4. rejected corporal punishment–encouragement and peer pressure in
its place.
d. Noah Webster (1758-1843)
1. believed success was based on virtues, knowledge, religion, and
morality;
2. curriculum should reflect American ideas; promoted concept of
literature based on American history; ideals and heroes rather than
foreign nations/foreigners;
3. value of education measured by usefulness;
4. stressed Calvinist view–tying religion and morality to education as
basis for political and social stability;
5. wanted to develop a national system of education–general system
of education for all Americans;
6. advocated “electives” in higher education;
7. emphasized the study of language should be a concrete appeal to
the senses (visible objects and their properties) rather than parts of
speech;
8. advocated specialization instead of broad education;
9. no education is better than a bad one;
10. teachers should be models of esteem, respect, and authority;
11. believed morality defeated barbaric diversity;
12. in 1783 published A Grammatical Institute of the English
Language;
13. in 1828 published An American Dictionary of the English
Language.
27. The Friends of Education – Who are some key people and their
contributions to education?
a. Horace Mann (1796-1859)
1. identified with “common school” developments;
2. came from farming family in Massachusetts;
3. educated at home and in common school;
4. graduate of Brown University and later Tapping Reeves Law
School;

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5. career in corporate law led to a decade in Massachusetts General
Court (legislative);
6. fought for state assistance for the insane; helped secure first state
hospital for the insane in Massachusetts;
7. elected as state Senator of Massachusetts and later accepted
secretarialship of the Board of Education; became an advocate for
the centralized school system;
8. state-wide study of education in Massachusetts, elements were:
a. all common (elementary) schools to be tuition free;
b. curriculum and texts to be standardized;
c. all schools in each township to be under direct control of
superintendent;
d. pupils grouped by age into grades;
e. all teachers to be licensed by state after “normal” training;
f. mandatory attendance by all children;
9. advocated a state system of schools instead of community
controlled schools–became official view of most American
educators;
10. founded and edited the Common School Journal;
11. advocated democratic ideals and training in self government;
12. in 1839 assisted with first tax funded supported normal school
opened in Lexington, Massachusetts.
b. Robert Owen (1771-1858)
1. believed character formed by environmental forces, antagonistic to
organized religion;
2. wrote A New View of Society, proclaiming education conducive to
social change;
3. theorized creation of a new society based on the equality of
persons inhabiting a community of common property;
4. believed infant education–first step to conditioning children and
fitting men and women to live in the communal society.
c. John Hughes (1879-1864)
1. key person in developing Catholic schooling in America;

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2. he was an Irish Catholic motivated by experiences of religious
persecution;
3. became a champion of Catholic rights;
4. in 1839 became Bishop of New York;
5. his intention to obtain funding for Catholic schools helped
secularize public schools and led to the development of an
intensive network of Catholic schools.
d. Sheldon Jackson (1834-1909)
1. Presbyterian minister;
2. taught in Choctaw boys schools as well as other missionary school
undertakings in Indian Territories;
3. first General Agent for Education in Alaska;
4. believed in the superiority of Protestant, Christian world view.
28. The Progressives – Who are some key people and their contributions
to education?
a. G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
1. studied positivistic philosophy in Germany;
2. studied with William James at Harvard and in 1878 received the
first Ph.D. in psychology in the United States and the first
doctorate in philosophy from Harvard;
3. developed theories of child development based on evolution;
argued for scientific study of children;
4. became president of Clark University which developed into a
graduate institution with a scientific orientation;
5. instrumental in founding of the American Psychological
Association, APA, serving as its first president;
6. prominent spokesperson for child study movement;
7. published Adolescence: his major work regarding a person’s
movement to adulthood;
8. introduced Freud and Freudian psychology to America in 1908;
9. first to apply psychology as a science to education.
b. Francis W. Parker (1837-1902)
1. “Father of Progressive Education”;

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2. saw education as great unifier of the people;
3. began rally against traditional education;
4. as supervisor of school system in Dayton, Ohio, began to use the
German community’s “object lessons” and “kindergarten”;
5. became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts in
1875;
6. gained widespread attention with “Quincy System”;
7. promoted educating children for a social democracy;
8. believed traditional education intensified social class divisions;
9. believed transmission of knowledge a means not an end in
education;
10. favored education with utility and vocation;
11. thought everyone should be trained into a love of work;
12. believed in spiraling of subject matter from simple to complex to
follow human development;
13. believed in the concept of “integratism” to unite people into a
community of common purpose;
14. developed “theory of concentration” with child-centered
curriculum;
15. believed teachers should make themselves indispensable through
merit;
16. became dean of education at the University of Chicago until his
death in 1902.
c. John Dewey (1859-1952)
1. best known education theorist of the 20th
century in the English
speaking world;
2. graduated from the University of Vermont;
3. spent two years teaching high school in Ohio and later in an
Academy in Vermont;
4. taught philosophy at the University of Michigan and University of
Minnesota;
5. in 1864 accepted a position at the University of Chicago to chair
philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy;

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6. was influenced by the social settlement work of Jane Addams and
progressive education of Francis Parker;
7. established “Laboratory School” at the University of Chicago in
1896;
8. believed every social experience was educative;
9. greatest contribution: formulation of underlying philosophic
foundations of progressive educational methods;
10. in 1904 began a professorship at Columbia University Teachers
College;
11. associated with liberal political circles to work for social reforms
(women’s suffrage, formation of NAACP, New York Teachers’
Union, American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), American
Association of University Professors (AAUP).
d. Margaret Haley (1861-1939)
1. emphasized that democracy worked through public control of
schools;
2. father’s financial collapse caused her to seek a teaching career;
3. teaching in Chicago put her in contact with Francis Parker;
4. joined a group of teachers who organized for better working
conditions; led to Chicago Teachers’ Federation (CTF);
5. worked full-time to get back taxes from powerful corporations to
be awarded to the board of education;
6. instrumental in getting the Chicago Teachers’ Federation to
affiliate with the Chicago Federation of Labor–the first teaching
group to do so;
7. worked to make Ella Flagg Young the first female president of the
National Education Association (NEA);
8. lobbied continuously for legislative reform;
9. in 1934 helped secure national loan to bail our Chicago city
schools during the Great Depression.
e. Ella Flagg Young (1845-1918)
1. first female superintendent of city schools of Chicago;
2. unable to attend school until age of 11; taught herself to read and
write;

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3. graduated from normal department of a Chicago high school;
4. worked as a teacher, assistant principal, and principal at various
Chicago schools until she became assistant superintendent;
5. supported teachers developing curriculum;
6. earned doctorate at University of Chicago;
7. formulated and practiced philosophy of learning by experience;
8. advocated social freedoms for schools to be run democratically
from the superintendent to the student;
9. in 1909 elected as superintendent of schools of Chicago schools;
10. in 1910 first female president of the National Education
Association.
29. The Outsiders – Who are some key people and their contributions to
education?
a. Emma Willard (1787-1870)
1. advocated women’s education;
2. contributed to the development of women’s education through
publications, lectures, and membership in educational associations;
3. educated at home and in district schools in Connecticut;
4. at age 17, became a teacher in a children’s school; later taught and
attended female seminaries, academies;
5. in 1808 became headship of a female school in Middlebury,
Vermont; in 1814 opened Middlebury Female Academy;
6. believed education of men and women should differ because of
women’s roles as mothers and influence in child-rearing;
7. believed education should guide girls to intellectual goals and
proper values to be passed on to their children for the continuance
of a republican form of government;
8. in 1819 presented Plan for Improving Female Education to the
New York legislature;
9. in 1821 received building aid from Troy, New York to build Troy
Female Seminary where she was principal for 17 years; became a
teacher training center;
10. in 1840 elected superintendent of schools in Kensington,
Connecticut; perhaps first women to hold such a position;

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11. in 1910 Troy Seminary was renamed Ella Willard School.
b. Mary Mason Lyon (1797-1849)
1. educated in one-room schools in Massachusetts where at age 14
she became a teacher;
2. received advanced training at a seminary and alternated teaching
with study;
3. established Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, opening in 1837;
became one of the most successful New England women’s schools;
4. believed development of household skills to be a family
responsibility, not the schools’.
c. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) & Emily Blackwell (1826-1910)
1. pioneers in medical education;
2. daughters of English dissenter of Church of England;
3. both barred from English public schools because of father’s
religion;
4. in 1832 family moved to New York;
5. in 1836 father died and sisters taught school to support the family;
6. both had motivations to be physicians but had difficulty gaining
admission to medical school;
7. Elizabeth graduated from Geneva in 1849 and Emily from Western
Reserve in Cleveland in 1854;
8. in 1853 Elizabeth opened a clinic that expanded to become the
New York Infirmary for Women and Children which Emily later
joined; in 1868 they established Women’s Medical College that
was associated with the infirmary;
9. in 1870 Elizabeth returned to London as professor of Gynecology
at the London School of Medicine for Women; Emily remained in
the United States working to expand the New York Infirmary and
teaching obstetrics and gynecology.
d. Sara Winnemucca (1844-1891)
1. Paiute Indian who worked in the home of an Army officer;
2. enrolled in convent school but was forced to withdraw because
white parents objected to her presence;
3. continued education alone;

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4. worked as a translator and spokesperson between Pauites and
whites;
5. spoke out against the Bureau of Indian Affairs;
6. in 1875 worked as a teacher’s aide;
7. in 1886 founded a school for Paiute children on her brother’s farm;
8. advocated Indian-controlled education and Indians’ right to run
their own lives.
e. Fanny Jackson Coppin (1837-1913)
1. advocate of vocational schooling for African Americans;
2. born a slave in 1837 in the District of Columbia; aunt bought her
freedom;
3. moved to Rhode Island and worked in a household of a family who
allowed her to study one hour every other afternoon;
4. attended a local black school and took private music lessons;
5. graduated from Rhode Island State Normal School, then Oberlin
College;
6. in 1865 one of the first women to receive a bachelor of arts degree;
7. in 1869 first woman to be head principal of the Institute for
Colored Youth in Philadelphia; began vocational program in 1889;
8. in 1902 began missionary work in Africa with her husband.
f. Booker T. Washington (1856-1915)
1. educational spokesperson and speech maker, preaching gospel of
self-help for blacks;
2. criticized by some for accepting separate and unequal educational
opportunities for African Americans;
3. born a slave of a cook on a small white “plantation”; father was a
white man he never knew;
4. self-taught; required to quit school to assist stepfather with family
income;
5. attended Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute;
6. influenced by General Samuel Chapman Armstrong’s strong
philosophy for vocational education to produce black self-reliance;

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7. graduated from Hampton and taught at Malden; then entered
Wayland Seminary in Washington, DC, a theological seminary
with a liberal arts emphasis;
8. convinced a liberal arts education was not practical for most
blacks;
9. in 1895 speech at Atlanta Exposition marked his entry to the
national scene; first time an African American appeared on the
same program as white dignitaries in the South;
10. became principal advocate for blacks under Theodore Roosevelt’s
administration;
11. helped to create a favorable climate for education for blacks that
met southern resistance;
12. believed schooling should improve the social, political, and
economic lives of people.
g. Rafael Cordero y Molino (1790-1868)
1. black educator, born in San Juan;
2. contributed to the development of elementary education in Puerto
Rico;
3. educated through home and self-schooling because formal school
was denied to blacks;
4. in 1810 opened a small school in San German, Puerto Rico to
teach black and poor white children; his methods of teaching also
attracted rich white children; taught rich and poor alike for no fees.
h. George I. Sanchez (1906-1972)
1. noted advocate of Mexican-American and Latino educational rights;
2. American southwest student who became a teacher in a one-room
school;
3. served as Director of the Division of Information and Statistics for
the New Mexico State Department of Education;
4. received Ed.D. from UCLA;
5. 1935-1938 was president of the New Mexico Education
Association;
6. in 1940 accepted first professorship in Latin American Studies in
the United States;
7. worked to discredit ethnically biased standardized testing;

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8. active proponent of litigation involving education of Mexican-
Americans.
30. The Critics – Who are some key people and their contributions to
education?
a. Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
1. advocated reforming schools to make them less teacher centered;
2. born in Italy; one of few women of her time to pursue technical
curriculum; first engineering then medicine;
3. entered University of Rome’s medical school; first woman in Italy
to graduate with degrees in medicine and surgery;
4. early work was in asylums increased her compassion for children,
concluding mental deficiency was educational rather than a mental
problem;
5. became director of the “orthophrenic school” for “deficient
children”;
6. appointed chair of anthropology at the University of Rome where
she wrote her first book, Pedagogical Anthropology;
7. worked with children in slum areas of Rome that resulted in
founding of Children’s Home and developed a developmental
theory of education;
8. believed children have strong need for order and psychological
deviations can be cured;
9. many toy manufactures were influenced by her methods and
theories.
b. John Watson (1878-1958)
1. applied the emerging field of psychology to the study of education;
2. born in a harsh, literal Baptist home in South Carolina;
3. received master’s degree and pursued a doctorate at the University
of Chicago during John Dewey’s tenure;
4. moved away from traditional psychology to behaviorism–the goals
of psychology were to predict and control behavior;

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5. in 1915 elected president of the American Psychological
Association;
6. developed environmentalist theory of individual differences caused
by early experiences;
7. aided development of animal studies by comparing animal and
human behavior.
c. Margaret Naumburg (1890-1983)
1. believed that society could be improved through education and that
education could be improved through psychoanalytic principles;
2. went to Europe to study with Montessori and returned to New
York to teach at Lillian Wald’s Henry Street Settlement
Kindergarten that was organized around Montessorian principles;
3. believed in combining regular school subjects and real life
activities, regarding subjects as means to living not ends of life.
d. William E.B. DuBois (1868-1963)
1. developed “talented tenth” concept that cultured intellectuals
would lead the black masses;
2. born in Massachusetts of French Huguenot, Dutch, and African
strains;
3. graduated as only African American in class of 12; entered Fisk
University where he was introduced to southern racial biases;
4. taught in the rural south where he learned of the hardships and
poverty of the southern black;
5. earned bachelor of arts in philosophy and master’s in history from
Harvard; thesis entitled The Suppression of African Slave Trade to
the United States of America;
6. studied at the University of Berlin and traveled Europe;
7. received Ph.D. from Harvard and took appointment at the University
of Pennsylvania and Atlanta University in the area of black studies;
8. director of publication and research for NAACP;
9. wrote Souls of Black Folk as a eulogy to the death of his infant son
who was denied health care because he was black;
10. friction grew with liberals, especially with the NAACP as DuBois’
ideas grew further away from Booker T. Washington;
11. supported female suffrage as a vote for black women;

PAGE 69
12. in the 1930s advocated development of an independent black cul-
ture;
13. in 1958 won the Lenin Peace Prize from the USSR;
14. headed the Peace Information Center of the World Congress of the
Defenders of Peace;
15. gave up American citizenship to become citizen of Ghana.
e. George S. Counts (1889-1974)
1. leading educational theorist for five decades;
2. known as a “reconstructionist” in education;
3. noted scholar of Soviet culture and education;
4. saw history as an instrument to shape a plan for a new society;
5. wrote Dare the School Build a New Social Order in the depths of
the economic depression of the 1930s;
6. born and grew up in Baldwin, Kansas;
7. earned bachelor’s degree from Baker University and a doctorate
from the University of Chicago;
8. criticized high school for serving upper socioeconomic class at the
expense of the poor;
9. believed education was related to a given civilization and its
problems at a particular time in history, thus schooling could be an
instrument of national policy;
10. believed educational philosophy was an instrument for dealing
with changing issues in a changing world;
11. developed a theory of social change to replace competitiveness and
exploitation with cooperation, planning, humanness, and
democracy in a technological society.
f. Miles Elwood Cary (1894-1959)
1. indirect “reconstructionist” schools should furnish environment to
criticize society’s wrongdoings and develop corrective social
actions; rejected class struggle as an enduring social order;
2. believed schools should be seen as places to discover conflict in
one’s cultural heritage, reinterpret the meaning of democracy and
as community centers for study and activity; democracy was the
means for a future culture;

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