Concept, characteristics and subject of scientific research. The scientific method

1. Subject: concept,
characteristics and purpose
of scientific research. The
scientific method
Compulsory cross-disciplinary core courses
ACTIVITY 2 > Block 1

2. Teacher:
Aurora Ribes Ribes
Academic Secretary of the Doctoral School

3. Contents
1. Introduction
2. University research
3. What is science? Theoretical
approach
4. The scientific method
5. Scientific research
6. Research methods and techniques

4. 1. Introduction
1.1. Doctoral School
1.2. Preliminary information

5. 1.1. Doctoral School
• EDUA: University of Alicante Doctoral School
• Foundation
• Deputy Vice-Chancellor’s Office for Research, Development and Innovation
• Functions
• Contact information:
• E-mail: doctorat@ua.es
• Telephone: +34 965 90 3466
• EDUA website: http://edua.ua.es

6. 1.2. Preliminary information
• What is a doctorate? What opportunities does holding a doctorate offer?
• Doctoral programmes offered at the UA Regulations (RD 99/2011)
• Tutor, thesis supervisor / PD coordinator / academic committee.
Functions
• Cross-disciplinary courses: core and specific
• Document of commitment and research plan
• Record of activities and research plan (RAPI)
• Duration (full-time/part-time)
• Other: international doctorate distinction, thesis by publication, etc.

7. 2. University
research

8. • "Research" originally denoted to seek, to search again. 12th and 13th
centuries. The scientific revolution of the 16th century changed its
meaning: to search for the unknown.
• Research has formed an essential activity in universities since they
were first founded in the Middle Ages. The fundamental function of
modern universities is to conduct research and instil a scientific
approach.
• UNESCO 1996: Given the importance of research for improving the
quality of education, teacher training should be enhanced by research
training.
• Doctorate: rather than teaching science, it is aimed at teaching how to
perform science.
University research

9. • Clear perception of the role of research in universities. It is essential to
promote a research focus in education, as this contributes to shaping an
independent and responsible individual, as a subject of knowledge.
• Research does not consist of repeated replication of procedures; rather, it
incorporates an important component of creativity and originality,
contributing new ideas that advance the development of different areas of
knowledge. Research can be educational, but can also bring benefits to
the community, through transfer of the results obtained.
University research
Conclusion:

10. 3. What is
science?
Theoretical
approach
3.1. What is science? Theoretical
approach
3.2 Science and language
3.3. Classification of the sciences

11. "The future of a country is deeply and directly related to the ability
of its citizens to organise education; the daughter of education is
science; and the daughter of science is technology"
3.1. What is science? Theoretical
approach

12. • Science: a systematically structured body of knowledge obtained through
observation and reasoning, from which general principles and laws are deduced.
• Defined as the body of knowledge in a discipline, it entails pursuing, obtaining
and developing understanding in a field of ​​knowledge. Its purpose is to uncover
the truth about daily events around us with a high degree of certainty (Tamayo,
2000)
• In science, explanations must be formulated in such a way that they can be
tested empirically, a process that should include the possibility of refutation.
• It therefore follows that knowledge is never definitive; it can change when new,
better grounded evidence is obtained. Two conclusions: science is fallible
(Bunge, 1996) and incremental: a scientific theory is often replaced by one that is
more complete, more accurate and more comprehensive.
• Difference between truth and a value judgment.
3.1. What is science? Theoretical
approach

13. • Science uses language to articulate propositions, terms and concepts.
• Propositions: these are linguistic expressions used to formulate
hypotheses, axioms, laws and theories.
• Terms: these are scientific predicates; their use is regulated, i.e. explicitly
agreed.
• Concepts: these are mental representations conveyed by an assigned word
or expression. For example, shape is an abstract concept; round is a
specific concept.
3.2. Science and language
Types of proposition:
• True (e.g. fish swim).
• False (e.g. whales are extinct).
• Doubtful (e.g. there is life on other planets).
• Changing (e.g. organisms arise by spontaneous generation - initially
accepted and later refuted).
• Subjective (e.g. sharks are better adapted to aquatic environments than
insects to land - contentious).

14. • Each field of science has its own conceptual system.
• Classification:
 Empirical concepts: observable (e.g. height can be observed and
measured)
 Theoretical concepts: unobservable, i.e. abstract (e.g. love)
• Hypothesis: conjecture or provisional proposal of any degree of generality,
testable to determine its validity by an appropriate method. A hypothesis
makes it possible to interpret all or part of a phenomenon, or to formulate
tentative explanations or solutions to a research problem or topic.
3.2. Science and language

15. • Laws/theories: these are interrelated propositions that explain a
phenomenon or express the relationships between the variables of a
phenomenon (e.g. Darwin's or Einstein's theories).
 The function of theories: to explain, systematise and predict
 There are no good or bad theories
 Theories are based on some of the following kinds of proposition:
• Basic empirical statements: these refer to one case, regardless of
whether this is generalisable or not to a larger number of cases (e.g. the
birth rate in city A was higher than in city B in 2012)
3.2. Science and language

16. • Empirical generalisations: these generalise observed empirical relationships
to the entire class (e.g. the rate of population growth in developing countries
is higher than that in developed countries).
• Empirically-based theoretical statements: these formulate an explanation of
the relationship between two or more empirically observed factors (e.g. the
higher growth rate in developing countries is explained by their greater
poverty and limited education systems).
• Theoretical statements with a theoretical basis: these do not have an
empirical basis, but rather generalise on a more abstract and general level
(e.g. exponential growth of the human species must give way to a sharp fall in
the same due to depletion of resources, wars spurred by competition or
increased incidence of disease).
• General theoretical statements: these are the most general postulates of a
theory that enable the formulation, from an abstract and general perspective,
of various types of statements (e.g. no species can grow exponentially
indefinitely).
3.2. Science and language

17. • "Science" should be used as a single term that encompasses all disciplines.
• In practice, there are various classifications, the most universal of which
distinguishes between:
3.3. Classification of the sciences
Formal sciences:
•These are based on the
deductive method and their
purpose is to prove theorems
and postulates.
•e.g. Logic , Mathematics.
Natural sciences:
•These are based on the
perception and observation of
the outside world, in human
experience.
•Reasoning is essentially
inductive, and thus goes from
the specific to the general.
•Their aim is to verify, leading
to the generation of
provisional knowledge that is
accepted as true until new
arguments or techniques
allow the formulation of more
coherent or comprehensive
explanations of a
phenomenon, or until a
singular case is observed
that fails to comply with the
rule.
•e.g. Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Ecology, etc.
Social or human sciences:
•These have a limited capacity
to state precise laws, since
humans actions are
conditioned by will, a
situation that does not occur
or is less common in other
sciences. Nevertheless, the
social sciences can be seen
as a science because they
study real phenomena not
addressed by other sciences.
•e.g. Sociology, Economics,
Education, Psychology, etc.

18. 4. The scientific
method
4.1. The scientific method
4.2. Process of the scientific method

19. Scientific: the precision and objectivity inherent to the methodology of the sciences.
Method: procedure followed in the sciences to uncover and teach the truth.
4.1. The scientific method
Origin: from the Greek: meta (after) and hodos (a way).

20. • Science uses the scientific method to advance; this is characterised by the use of
specific techniques for each area of ​​knowledge, which are agreed and recognised by
each scientific community.
• The scientific method eliminates subjective interpretation of reality and is therefore the
most appropriate and reliable means to gain knowledge about things and establish more
or less stable theories. Common knowledge, in contrast, is based on phenomenology,
i.e. on our own perceptions.
• Caution with regard to the supra-validity of the scientific method (e.g. dusk).
Sometimes, it merely confirms our perceptual error, but nothing guarantees that this is
actually the truth, since it may be invalidated in the future when a new theory offers us
a more appropriate explanation.
4.1. The scientific method

21. 4.2. Process of the scientific method
Posing the problem
Formulating a hypothesis
Obtaining information
Data analysis
Hypothesis testing
Conclusions
Conclusions

22. 5. Scientific
research

23. • Research: to systematically carry out intellectual and experimental activities in order
to acquire more knowledge about a particular subject.
• For research to be classified as scientific it must:
 Address a recognisable, defined subject in such a way that is also recognisable for
others
 Report novel things about this subject, or test previous reports from a new
perspective
 Be useful to others
 Provide elements that enable verification or refutation of the hypothesis presented
5. Scientific research

24. • Research should be objective.
• Research stages: observation, description, explanation and prediction.
• The scientific method is the bridge between scientific research and scientific
knowledge.
• Basic research / applied research. Experimental / non-experimental / quasi-
experimental / pre-experimental research.
5. Scientific research

25. 6. Research
methods and
techniques
6.1. Research methods.
Typology
6.2. Research techniques

26. • Little clear distinction between research methods and techniques. Conceptual
transposition.
• Some of the most important methods include:
 Analogy
 Induction-deduction (possible combination)
 Analysis-synthesis
 Behaviourism
 Phenomenology
 Historical-philological
 Dialectical
6.1. Research methods. Typology

27. • Technique: set of procedures and resources employed in a science or
an art.
• Method indicates the procedure to follow and the techniques employed
to do so. Lack of a clear distinction.
• Techniques correspond to the final level of the scientific method.
• Some of the most common techniques are: quantitative, qualitative,
retrospective, prospective, longitudinal, cross-sectional, objectivism,
subjectivism, static, dynamic, case studies, etc.
6.2. Research techniques

28. Aurora Ribes Ribes
aurora.ribes@ua.es
Associate Professor in Tax Law
Doctoral School Office