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1. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
The Relationship of University
Students’ Sleep Habits
and Academic Motivation
Kellah M. Edens
College students are sleeping less during the week than
reported a few years ago. Lack of sleep among college stu-
dents has been identified as one of the top three health-
related impediments to academic performance by the
American College Health Association’s National College
Health Assessment survey; and it is associated with lower
grades, incompletion of courses, as well as negative
moods. This research examines the underlying dynamics
of lack of sleep on academic motivation, a key predictor of
academic performance. Specifically, the relationship of
sleep habits with self-efficacy, performance versus mastery
goal orientation, persistence, and tendency to procrasti-
nate were investigated. Findings indicate that 42% of the
participants (159 students out of a total of 377) experi-
ence excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS); and those iden-
tified with EDS tend: (1) to be motivated by performance
goals rather than mastery goals; (2) to engage in procras-
tination (a self-handicapping strategy) to a greater extent
than students who are rested; and (3) to have decreased
self-efficacy, as compared to students not reporting EDS.
Several recommendations for campus health professionals
to consider for a Healthy Campus Initiative are made
based on the findings.
432
Kellah M. Edens is an associate professor of educational psychology and research at
the University of South Carolina in Columbia, South Carolina.

2. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
Sleepiness among college-aged students frequently is observed in uni-
versity classrooms, particularly in classes with large enrollments where
drowsiness and even “nodding off” is common (Appleby, 1990;
Grande, 2005). College students are caught up in the drive to “do it
all,” for the college experience itself is rife with concerns about new
challenges related to classes, grades, relationships, and extracurricular
activities. With too little time in a 24-hour day to “do it all,” college
students’ sleep habits have changed noticeably during the last few
decades, and they mimic the trend of less sleep reported in the recent
National Sleep Foundation (NSF) poll. According to Hicks,
Fernandez, and Pellegrini (1990), between about 1970–2001, stu-
dents reported more than 1 hour less sleep per night, from 7.75 to
6.65 hours (as cited in Jenson, 2003).
Providing additional evidence about the sleep habits of college stu-
dents, the American College Health Association’s (ACHA) National
College Health Assessment (NCHA) addresses the broadest range of
health issues in the college-age population and is the largest known
comprehensive data set on the health of college students. Developed
in 1998 by college health professionals from items drawn from nation-
al survey, the instrument tracks health trends and changes among col-
lege students. When asked to identify factors that have affected acad-
emic performance, students over seven survey periods (spring 2000
through spring 2004) consistently indicated stress and lack of sleep
among the top three impediments to their academic achievement.
More specifically, students (N = 47,202) responding to the spring
2004 survey reported that stress, cold/flu/sore throat, and lack of sleep
resulted in a lower grade on an exam, project, or course; or forced
them to drop a course or take an incomplete.
College and university professionals working in campus health recog-
nize the interdependence of health and learning and support students
in diverse ways to promote health (Sacher, Moses, Fabiano,
Haubenreiser, Grizzell, & Mart, 2005). The ecological perspective of
the campus environment emphasizes the importance of identifying
negative consequences of health issues and predictive links between
health and learning (Sacher et al., 2005). ACHA’s (2002) Healthy
Campus 2010: Health Impediment to Learning has established compre-
hensive sets of national health objectives that target a reduction over
the next decade in the frequency of occurrence of specific health issues
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3. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
that negatively impact academic performance. In addition to the top
three impediments (stress, cold/flu/sore throat, and lack of sleep),
other illnesses (asthma, sexually transmitted diseases), alcohol and
drug use, sexual assault, relationship problems, and depression also
are identified as factors. These contributory health factors are interre-
lated; and in many cases, causality likely can be established between
or among factors. In particular, lack of sleep is associated with the
majority of health issues either as a symptomatic factor or a causal fac-
tor (NSF, 2005).
As a causal factor rather than a symptom of other underlying health
issues, “Not getting enough sleep” may simply be a symptom of a hec-
tic life style. As such, campus health professionals promoting student
wellness benefit from examining the negative consequences of sleep
behaviors. The research described in this paper seeks to clarify the link
between sleep behaviors and academic achievement by describing
how typical sleep behaviors influence academic motivation. Abundant
research indicates that concepts associated with academic motivation
substantially influence academic achievement (Bandura, 1986;
Midgely, 2002). The view that sleep behavior plays an important role
in academic motivation appears likely, based on research concerning
the influence of sleep behavior on academic achievement and on anec-
dotal evidence about the advantages of “a good night’s sleep.” Current
research has found that lack of sleep affects school performance and is
related to achieving low grades (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998), yet
research has not addressed specific questions concerning sleep behav-
ior’s relationship with specific factors linked to academic motivation.
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to examine the relationship of
sleep behavior with the following factors associated with academic
motivation: self-efficacy, goal orientation, and procrastination—a type
of self-handicapping behavior. Empirical data about sleep habits,
excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), academic goal orientation,
and procrastination were obtained and analyzed by gender and
classification.
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4. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
The specific research questions were:
1. What is the relationship between students who have EDS with
self-efficacy, goal orientation, and tendency to procrastinate?
2. Are demographic factors, such as gender, class rank, ethnicity, and
on-campus versus off-campus living arrangements associated with
EDS, self-efficacy, goal orientation, and procrastination?
3. What is the relationship between students who have EDS and
demographic factor such as work hours and number of courses
taken?
4. What percentage of students may have sleep disorders associated
with their EDS?
Factors Associated with Academic Motivation
Academic motivation affects students’ learning and behavior in the
school setting (Brophy, 1988; Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgely, 1993; Winne
& Marx, 1989). Self-efficacy, the belief that one is capable of perform-
ing certain behaviors or reaching particular goals, is an important
component of academic motivation. Students who believe that they
can achieve academically (i.e., students with high self-efficacy) are
more motivated to engage in challenges. They believe they can suc-
cessfully accomplish the activities and tasks and thus are motivated to
make an effort (Bandura, 1986).
Another aspect of achievement motivation relates to the different rea-
sons students may have for being motivated academically. Some stu-
dents have mastery goals, which are typified by a desire to acquire new
knowledge or learn a new skill. Other students have performance
goals, which are based on a desire to appear competent or smart to
others (Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck, 1986). A considerable amount
of research describes numerous differences between students with
mastery goals versus performance goals. Included among the findings
are: students with mastery goals exhibit more self-regulated learning.
Self-regulation is the process of setting goals for oneself and engaging
the behaviors and cognitive processes that lead to achieving the goals.
Self-regulation includes several behaviors such as goal setting, plan-
ning, self-monitoring, attention control self-evaluation, and solicita-
435

5. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
tion of help when needed (Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgely, 2001; Winne,
1995; Zimmerman, 1998; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Research
generally has found that adults have high self-regulatory skills to
achieve a goal, yet a recent study suggests that college adults are poor
self-regulators when it comes to academic behavior. When given the
opportunity, the college students did not use self-regulation strategies
that would have helped them achieve an academic goal (Peverly,
Brobst, Graham, & Shaw, 2003).
In addition to being better self-regulators than students with perfor-
mance goals, students with mastery goals tend to interpret failure as a
sign that they should expend more effort, evaluate their own perfor-
mance in terms of the progress they make, and remain relatively calm
during tests. In contrast, students with performance goals not only
exhibit less self-regulated behavior, but also tend to interpret failure as
a sign of low ability, evaluate their progress in terms of how they com-
pare with others, and are often quite anxious about tests (Wigfield &
Eccles, 2002).
Other behaviors occur that hinder self-regulation. Procrastination is
one of several forms of self-handicapping regulatory behavior in
which students may engage (e.g., setting unrealistic goals, reducing
effort, taking on too much), and it involves postponing either the ini-
tiation or completion of a task until success is difficult or impossible
to attain. These self-handicapping behaviors give students a chance to
justify the failure and protect their feeling of self-worth (Covington,
1992; Urdan, Ryan, Anderman, & Gheen, 2002).
Developmental Patterns of Sleep Behavior
The pattern of sleeping less begins in younger years, for sleep behav-
ior changes significantly during adolescence. Adolescents from 13–19
years of age, as a whole, sleep less than when they were younger
because of behaviorial and psychosocial factors, as well as biological
processes (Carskadon, 1999). In another survey by the NSF (2002),
over half of the young adults reported “waking up feeling unrefreshed”
(55%), and the percentage of young adults suffering from significant
daytime sleepiness (33%) is equivalent to that of shift workers (29%).
In a study examining sleep habits, EDS, and school performance of
Korean high school students, the prevalence of EDS—as defined by
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6. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), an extensively used questionnaire
(Johns, 1991) used by sleep specialists and researchers international-
ly to measure daytime sleepiness—was about 18% for females and
15% for males (Sin, Kim, Sangduck, Ahn, & Joo, 2003). This is a
lower percentage than reported for American youth in the NSF poll.
Insufficient sleep affects school performance—students who struggle
or fail in high school report about 30 minutes less sleep than students
who make As and Bs (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998). Insufficient sleep
also may influence negative moods (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998) and
be associated with a decreased ability to control or modify emotional
responses (Dahl, 1999). In addition, an increased chance of stimulant
use is related to insufficient sleep (Carskadon, 1990). Clearly, the ram-
ifications of lack of sleep in the lives of students (and all Americans)
are vast and certainly warrant additional investigation beyond the
scope of this study.
Method
Participants and Instrumentation
Participants were 377 undergraduate students in a large Southeastern
university, and the majority (95%) ranged in age from 18–23. In addi-
tion, the majority of students lived on campus in residence halls.
Eighty-two percent of the participants were female and 18% were
male, a percentage representative of the college in which the sample
was drawn, but not representative of the university’s total student
enrollment. The majority of students were sophomores and juniors,
44% and 36% respectively. Only 8% were freshmen, and 12% were
seniors. Eighty-four percent of the participants were White, with 13%
African American and 3% Latino. The students were enrolled in an
introductory educational psychology class and voluntarily completed
the instrumentation developed for the study. The survey was not com-
pleted during class time, and they were not required to participate as
part of course requirements.
Students completed a questionnaire developed for the study from sev-
eral existing and widely-used instruments measuring the following:
sleep habits and the extent of EDS, self-efficacy (high or low), goal ori-
entation (mastery or performance goals), and procrastination (high or
437

7. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
low). Sleep habits were measured using the ESS, along with other sleep
assessment questions. EDS is defined as a score of 10+ on the ESS.
Other items derived from the sleep assessment scale pinpoint specific
characteristics associated with sleep disorders, such as “Not feeling
rested, no matter how much sleep I get” and “Have anxiety or worry
about things.” In order to examine sleep behavior as a factor unasso-
ciated with other health issues other than stress, students were asked
if they had recently or currently experienced an illness (e.g., cold, flu,
sore throat, allergies).
Self-efficacy, goal orientation, persistence, and level of procrastination
were measured from a series of 16 self-report items taken from instru-
ments used in previous research to measure these constructs (Pintrick,
2000; Wolter, 2003). The self-efficacy subscale of the instrument con-
sisted of 4 items. An example of an item from this subscale is “I’m sure
I can do an excellent job in the class” (Pintrich, 2000). Goal orienta-
tion (mastery and performance goals) was measured by 6 items, such
as “Doing better than other students in the class is important to me,”
an item assessing a performance goal orientation (Pintrich, 2000). The
subscale for persistence consisted of 3 items such as “When I decide
to do something, I persist until I have completed it.” The subscale for
procrastination consisted of 6 items from Wolter’s scale (2003), con-
structed to assess students’ tendency to postpone completing their
assigned schoolwork. An example of an item assessing procrastination
is “I postpone doing work for this class until the last minute.”
Analyses and Results
The data were analyzed in SPSS using descriptive statistics and
MANOVA. Correlational analysis was used to determine relationships
among the following variables: goal orientation (performance versus
mastery goals), self-efficacy, persistence, tendency to procrastinate,
and EDS. In addition, correlations were computed to examine the
association of demographic information such as number of hours
taken and number of weekly work hours with sleep habits and goal
orientation. Data from students who indicated they recently had been
or currently were ill were not included so that only sleep behavior that
potentially could be self-regulated was examined. MANOVA was used
to examine sleep habit and goal orientation differences between males
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8. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
and females and to determine if differences existed among students of
differing ethnicity and class rank.
The first research question investigated the relationship between stu-
dents’ sleep habits and self-efficacy, goal orientation, and tendency to
procrastinate. As shown in Table 1, A Pearson product-moment cor-
relation indicates a significant relationship between level of EDS and
tendency to have performance goals, r (377) = .133, p < .001. Thus,
students who are excessively sleepy tend to be motivated to be driven
by an external motivator of “making a grade” rather than having an
intrinsic desire to acquire new knowledge.
Table 1
Intercorrelations Between Subscales of EDS,
Mastery Goals, Performance Goals, Procrastination,
Persistence, Self-Efficacy, and GPA
Students who are excessively sleepy also tend to engage in procrasti-
nation, a self-handicapping strategy, r (377) = .163, p < .001, to a
greater extent than students who are rested. The excuse “I waited too
late to start the project to get a good grade” is a way to justify failure
while protecting self-worth. In addition, a significant negative correla-
tion, r (377) = -114, p < .05, exists between students reporting exces-
sive sleepiness and self-efficacy. Quite understandably, when sleepy,
439

9. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
students tend to feel less capable of performing certain behaviors or
reaching particular goals.
Also shown in Table 1 and as expected, mastery goals were negatively
correlated with procrastination, r (377) = -330, p < .001; and posi-
tively correlated with persistence, r (377) = .725, p < .001. Mastery
goals were positively correlated with self-efficacy, r (377) = .116,
p < .05; and negatively correlated with GPA, r (377) = -.25, p < .05.
Also as expected, students holding performance goals tended to pro-
crastinate more than students possessing mastery goals, r (377) =
.193, p < .001; and a negative relationship existed between students
driven by mastery goals and procrastination, r (377) = -.330, p < .001.
Students who procrastinate also tended to have a lower GPA, r (377)
= -.131, p < .05. A positive relationship existed between GPA and ten-
dency to persist on academic tasks and academic self-efficacy, r (377)
= .161, p < .001 and r (377) = .381, p < .001, respectively.
The second research question investigated if demographic factors—
such as gender, class rank, on-campus versus off-campus living
arrangements, and ethnicity—are associated with EDS, and the sub-
scales related to academic motivation. Findings indicate that no sig-
nificant differences existed between males and females with respect to
EDS and components of academic motivation. Apparently, females
and males are equally likely to experience excessive sleepiness and
possess similar motivational patterns, as are students who reside on
campus in residence halls and those who live off campus. In addition,
no significant differences were found among classes (freshmen, sopho-
mores, juniors, and seniors); all reported similar patterns of sleepiness
and motivation.
MANOVA revealed differences, however, on the EDS measure among
students of differing ethnicity, F (2, 376) = 3.4, p < .05. African
American students reported a significantly greater extent of EDS than
White students (Mean difference = 1.24, p = < .05) and Latino stu-
dents (Mean difference =1.47, p = < .05). White students tended to
score significantly higher on the mastery goal measure than Latino stu-
dents F (2, 376) = 3.45, p < .05 (Mean difference of 1.22, p = < .05).
African American students also scored higher than Latinos on the mas-
tery goal measure, but not at a significant level. White students also
scored higher than Latino students on the tendency to persist on aca-
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10. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
demic tasks measure, F (2, 376) = 3.81, p < .05 (Mean difference of
2.05, p = < .05). Again, African American students scored higher than
Latinos on the tendency to persist measure, but not at a significant
level.
Third, findings about the relationship between students who have
EDS and number of job-related work hours per week and number of
courses taken during the semester indicate that the greater the num-
ber of hours students are enrolled in, the greater the likelihood of
being excessively sleepy, r (377) = .135, p < .05. Surprisingly, no rela-
tionship existed between number of job-related work hours and EDS.
Finally, the percentage of students who have sleep disorders associat-
ed with their EDS was computed. While 42% of the participants
reported experiencing EDS, only 28% of participants were identified
as likely having a sleep disorder. Interestingly, while African American
students scored higher on the ESS than Whites and Latinos, they were
no more likely to have characteristic sleep behaviors associated with
sleep disorders than White or Latino participants.
Discussion
Recent studies have found that college students are sleeping less num-
bers of hours per night during the week (NSF, 2005) and that insuffi-
cient sleep is reported as one of the three health impediments to aca-
demic performance (ACHA, 2005). These findings certainly have
implications for many aspects of student behavior related to academ-
ic performance and motivation. While research has found an associa-
tion with lack of sleep with grade performance, negative moods, and
other behaviors, the influence of lack of sleep (EDS as measured by the
ESS) on academic motivation was explicitly examined. Findings from
this study suggest that EDS is associated with academic motivation in
several ways.
First, EDS is related to the different reasons students may have for
being motivated academically. Students who do not experience day-
time sleepiness tend to have mastery goals, which are typified by a
desire to acquire new knowledge or learn a new skill; while those with
EDS tend to have performance goals, which are based on a desire to
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11. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
appear competent or smart to others (Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck,
1986). Students with mastery goals exhibit more self-regulated learn-
ing and tend to interpret failure as a sign that they should expend
more effort, a healthy attribution. In contrast, students with perfor-
mance goals not only exhibit less self-regulated behavior, but also tend
to interpret failure as a sign of low ability, evaluate their progress in
terms of how they compare with others, and are often quite anxious
about tests (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). Excessive sleepiness, and anxi-
ety sometimes related to it, appears to be an important component of
some of the undesirable behavior associated with performance goals.
EDS also was found to be associated with tendency to procrastinate,
which is a self-handicapping self-regulatory behavior. This empirical
finding supports ample anecdotal evidence about the difficulty associ-
ated with accomplishing a task when overly sleepy. EDS also was neg-
atively associated with self-efficacy. Unlike students with high self-effi-
cacy who are more motivated to engage in challenges, those with EDS
tend to have lower self-efficacy and thus are not motivated to complete
an academic task.
The students in this study were from a large university, with the major-
ity between 18–23 years of age, female, and residing on campus in res-
idence halls. The percentage of these students reporting EDS (42%)
was much greater than the percentage of students (18% females and
15% males) from the Korean high school (Sin et al., 2003), mentioned
previously. Taken together, these finding portray a significant dispari-
ty between these two cultures regarding sleep behavior, something
that campus health professionals should consider when evaluating
environmental influences of residence hall life. Research examining
differences between behavioral and psychosocial factors in the late
high school experiences of Korean students may provide an explana-
tion for differing sleep patterns, and subsequently lead to identifying
strategies to address sleep deprivation in U.S. college students. How
to increase the numbers of well-rested students certainly would
enhance school performance; moreover, it would contribute to an
overall sense of self-efficacy.
Student learning is the core of the academic mission, and campus
health professionals are aware of the mutual dependence of health and
learning. Using the ecological lens to campus health requires close
examination of the individual influences and environmental influ-
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12. NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3
ences in order to develop a plan. An understanding of the effects of
excessive sleepiness on academic motivation, which is the basis of aca-
demic achievement, suggests several recommendations to include in a
Healthy Campus Initiative:
1. Demonstrate within student communities the interrelationships
and reciprocal relationships of the identified health impediments
to academic performance.
2. Communicate to campus health professionals and student com-
munities that ‘getting enough sleep’ is a predictor of increased aca-
demic motivation. Emphasize the influence of academic motiva-
tion on academic performance.
3. Establish behavioral norms of student wellness, explicitly includ-
ing statement of adequate sleep norms.
4. Evaluate individual and environmental influences in residence
halls that affect sleep habits and develop a plan to mediate the
negative influences.
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