Week 3 – 91417Today• 2nd Research Example• Q.docx

Week 3 – 9/14/17
Today
• 2nd Research Example
• Quiz #1 Debrief
• Research Ethics
• Practice
• Workplace Productivity – You are interested in the factors
that influence and have relationships with employee’s
productivity in the workplace.
Questions:
1. What are one (1) directional & one (1) non-directional
research hypothesis?
2. What are the IV and DV in this scenario?
a. What might be an operational definition for these variables?
3. Is this research being done experimentally or non-
experimentally?
a. How can you tell?

4. Is this a qualitative or quantitative research study?
Research Scenario Example #2
Conceptual
Math Achievement
Trust (Workplace)
Depression
Anger
Operational
Score on PSSA Math
Score on the ITA (International
Trust Assessment)
Hamilton Depression Rating
Scale
Yelling, hitting, etc.
Variable Definition (IV or DV)
Quiz 1
• How’d it go?
• Questions / Concerns?

• 1 Hour?
• Let’s take a look.
Types of Variables
Continuous and discrete variables
• Continuous: Measured along a continuum at any
place beyond the decimal point, meaning that it
can be measured in whole units or fractional units
• E.g. Olympic sprinters are timed to the nearest
hundredths place (in seconds), but if the Olympic
judges wanted to clock them to the nearest millionths
place, they could
Types of Variables
• Discrete: Measured in whole units or categories
that are not distributed along a continuum
• E.g. Number of brothers and sisters you have,
socioeconomic class (working class, middle class,
upper class)
Recap So Far

• Empirical Research
• Experimental vs. Non-Experimental
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Hypothesis vs. Research Question
• Directional
• Independent Variable vs. Dependent Variable
• Variable Definitions
• Conceptual vs. Operational
• Investigator is liable; must ensure…
– Protection from harm
– Experiments? Survey?
– Informed consent
– Privacy
– Knowledge of results
– Potential benefit
– Debriefing
• For sponsored work, University is also liable

– Institutional Review Board (IRB)
– Offering Inducements?
– Anonymity vs. Confidentiality
Ethics in Human Subject Research
IRB Approval
Ethical Use of Deception
Deception in research
• Can be active (deliberately untruthful) or passive
(omission of key information about a study)
• For IRB to approve the use of deception:
• The deception is necessary, and the use of
nondeceptive alternatives is not feasible
• There is no reasonable expectation for causing
physical pain or severe emotional distress to
participants
• Participants are informed of the deception as early as
possible, but no later than at the end of data
collection
• Use of Placebo

• Difficult to study topics
How did we get here?
• Who?
• Prisoners, Minorities, Children, Poor, Mental Disease,
Cognitive
Disabilities
• What?
• Nuremberg Code
• Study of Disease Progression
• Syphilis, Plague, STD’s
• Tuskegee Alabama – US Public Health Dept.
• Jonas Salk – Infected with Influenza
• Radiation Poisoning
• Efficacy of Torture and Interrogation techniques
• Holmseburg Prison (1962 – 1965)
Tuskegee Syphilis

• 3 Stages – 3rd Stage debilitating / disfiguring / fatal
• There was a stigma (sin) based on sexual transmission
• Oslo Study – 1920’s
• Withheld treatment for 2,000 from white patients
• 70% proceed to latent stage – Noncontagious
• 30% proceed deadly tertiary stage
• Findings – Unethical to withhold treatment
• US 1929 – Mass Syphilis treatment was viable
• 1932 (Taliaferro Clark)– Tuskegee Institute – Macon County
GA
• Observe Black Men 25-60
• Underlying Racist Rationale – “Black men won’t follow
instructions, So …”
• White doctors correspondance – laced with racist stereotypes
Tuskegee Syphilis
• Many men has already seen a doctor
• All wanted to participate to get treatment
• Doctors Deception
• Said they had been misdiagnosed with “Bad Blood”
• Given other / fake treatment

• Told they were being treated
• Signed over rites to autopsy
• Got other doctors to lie
DID NOT GIVE THEM SYPHILIS
• Later added a control group
• 390 Test
• 200 Control Group
• Other Benefits
• Rides into Tuskegee Institute
• Free Meal
• Ride back
• Burial Expenses
Tuskegee Syphilis
• Not a secret
• 15 different papers published between 1935 - 1957
• 1960’s – Concerns were raised by several health officials
• 1972 – Broke story in Washington Star & NY Times
• US paid 9 Million in class action lawsuit from NAACP
• 1997 – US officially apologizes
• Some got treatment – Penicillin
• Moved away

• Covert from some staff
Impact
• Increase in mistrust of Medical community
• Increase mortality in African American population
Tuskegee Syphilis
Social / Psychological Phenomena
– Wendell Johnson 1939 – “Monster Experiment”
– Create Stuttering in orphans
– Stanley Milgrim –
– Obedience Experiment 1961
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOYLCy5PVgM
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yr5cjyokVUs
– “Experimenter” Movie
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nYVFO5zZiM
– Philip Zimbardo
– Stanford Prison Experiment – August 1971

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_LKzEqlPto
– Movie
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XN2X72jrFk
– Abu Ghraib
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOYLCy5PVgM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yr5cjyokVUs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nYVFO5zZiM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_LKzEqlPto
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XN2X72jrFk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XN2X72jrFk
Stanley Milgrim
Research Scenario - Cheating
Independent
Personality
-Risk Taking -
Desperation
Dependent
Incorrect Scoring

• MC Exam
• Essay Exam
Cheating
a. What might be an operational definition for these variables?
Conceptual
Personality
• Risk Taking
• Desperation
Cheating
• MC Exam
• Essay Exam
Operational
Score on Myers-Briggs
Personality Test
Exam not scored
accurately
• MC Exam

• Essay Exam
2. Is this research being done experimentally or
non-experimentally?
Non-Experimental
3. Is this a qualitative or quantitative research
study?
Quantitative
Relational Causal
Non-
directional
• Certain personality
attributes are related to
classroom cheating.
• Risk taking is related to
incidence of cheating.
• Causal hypotheses must be
directional.

Directional
• High risk taking levels are
positively correlated with
classroom cheating.
• Personality attributes are
positively correlated with
incorrect self scoring.
• High risk taking levels will lead
to an increased chance of
classroom cheating.
• Certain personality traits predict
the likelihood of classroom
cheating.
What are one (1) directional & one (1)
non-directional research hypothesis?
5. How are the following relevant in this proposal?
a. Informed consent
a. Students did not consent to participate in research
b. Deception
a. Information is withheld from participants
c. Confidentiality / Anonymity
a. The research is not anonymous and students who cheat will
be

identified
d. Risks
a. Students are placed in a potentially stressful classroom
situation in
which other students are cheating, and they themselves may
struggle
with the decision to cheat. If they do cheat, they may be labeled
by
instructors and other students as cheaters
e. Benefits
a. It is important in society to understand the factors that
promote
cheating
6. What are the possible consequences (risks and
benefits) of this research for:
a. The participants
b. The instructor/researcher
c. Other students who do not participate
d. Other instructors
e. Society

Participant
• Risks
• Stressful cheating situations,
• Risk of being discovered as a cheater
• The distress that follows when deception is revealed.
• Academic consequences for those who are caught cheating
• Cheaters may do better on the make-up test because of
additional time spent studying.
The risks of the research should not be greater than what an
individual might experience
in the course of everyday life. In the present situation, taking
exams, and the opportunity
and occurrence of cheating are likely to be part of students'
regular experiences.
• Benefits
• Learning about factors that influence whether a person decides
to cheat
• The satisfaction derived from participating in psychological
research.
Instructor/researcher
• Risks
• Being identified as an instructor who is not honest with
students.
• Benefits
• Learning about factors that influence whether students cheat

in the most natural situation possible - the classroom.
• Ability to publish the results of the study in a scientific
journal, which will enhance his or her prestige.
Risks & Benefits
Other Students who do not participate
• Risks
• Creation of an academic environment in which cheating seems
to be easy and perhaps necessary in
order to achieve good grades.
• Benefits
• Gaining information about the factors that influence cheating
so that universities can take steps to
prevent cheating.
Other instructors in the university
• Risks
• Environment will be created in which students do not trust
instructors and students believe that
cheating is easy and necessary.
• Benefit
• They will learn about the factors that influence cheating so
that they can take steps to decrease
cheating in their own classrooms.
Society

• Risks
• Researchers develop the reputation of being dishonest and
covert in their attempts to study
behavior.
• Mistrust of science, particularly psychological science.
• Benefit
• Greater understanding of cheating behavior in real-life
settings, which may lead to possible
methods to lessen the incidence of cheating.
Risks & Benefits
7. What alternative methods exist for conducting this
research?
• What are the ethical consequences of these methods (see
Step 2)?
• What are the ethical consequences of not doing this
research?
• Modify this research
• Consent
• In a Laboratory
• Without deception?

• Naturalistic Research – unobtrusive observation
• Self Report Survey of cheating?
Alternate Approaches
Practice –Groups of 3-4
You want to study the relationship between THC and cognitive
performance
• What is the IV & DV?
• Operational Definitions?
• How could you study Experimentally?
• How could you study Non-Experimentally?
• Which “Method” is the only way to establish causation.
• Ethical concerns with either of these methods?
You want to study whether
1. Listening to classical music improves memory
2. Wearing name tags makes people happier with their work
3. Exposure to public television improves their reading skills
• What is Non Directional Hypothesis?
• What is a Directional Hypothesis?
You want to study how employees with a learning disability feel
at your
company.
• Why is qualitative research a better fit?

You want to study the relationship between THC and cognitive
performance
• Operational Definitions?
• THC – How much? How Often?
• Cognitive Performance – 10 item Problem solving test
• How could you study Experimentally?
• One group is receiving THC and another Oregano. They'll be
given
the same list of words to study while smoking. Recall is tested
one hour later.
• How could you study Non-Experimentally?
• Ask participants about THC consumption / Marijuana use
• Causation?
You want to study whether
1. Listening to classical music improves memory
• IV – Music DV – Memory
• Listening to classical music effects Memory
• Listening to classical music improves memory

2. Wearing name tags makes people happier with their work
• IV – Name Tags DV – Happiness
• Wearing name tags and employee happiness are related
• Employees wearing name tags are happier
3. Exposure to public television improves their reading skills
• IV – Public TV DV – Reading Skills
• Watching public TV and impacts reading skills
• Watching public TV lowers reading skills
Listening to Music
Educational Benefits
• 1993 – College students improved spatial - temporal reasoning
(picturing spatial pattern & fitting in space) tasks with Mozart
• Improved for 10 minutes and gone in 1 hour
• “Mozart Effect” Farce – Improves IQ
• Since – Meta Analysis
• Improvement Statistically insignificant
• Other studies suggest improvement in spatial & temporal
reasoning tasks
• 2010 – Surgeons improve alertness, concentration,
performance with background music

• Repeated with manual tasks
• The kind of music matters
• Could distract and interfere with cognitive performance
You want to study how employees with a learning disability feel
at
your company.
• Why is qualitative research a better fit?
• Small N (# of participants)
• Purposeful sample (not random)
• Flexible measurement tools – Survey, interview, etc.
• Unsure of outcome, relationships, meaningful independent
variables
• You are not interested in testing a specific hypothesis
• You aren’t interested in generalizing to other environments
Assignments
• Research Proposal Assignment
• Due by 5:30 PM on 9/21

• See .pdf on BB
Talk to me before you leave tonight if you are stuck
• Quiz #2 – Ch.2 & 3
• Due Week 5 – 9/28
Week 2 –9/7/17
Recap
• What are somecharacteristics of EMPIRICAL
Research?
• Why / Where could empirical research be
helpful?
• Where does your “Knowledge” come from?
• What is a research hypothesis?
Anatomy of a Journal Article
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Background, Purpose, Hypothesis/Research Question
• Method
• Participants, Measures, Procedures
• Results
• Discussion

• References
Seeking Answers to Questions
Where do they come from?
• Familiar sources of information:
» Tradition—relying on past behaviors (Tenacity)
» Intuition – a hunch or ”feeling”
» Authority—seek out opinions of experts
» Common sense (Logic)—logical human reasoning
» Personal Experience / Anecdotal – Empiricism
» Rationalism – Reason or logic
» If student cheats, they don’t know answer
Why might thesefamiliar sources on knowledge be
:
• Misleading
• Wrong
Where does the error come from?
Non-Directional

◦ I predict that stress and test performance will be
significantly related.
Directional & Relational
◦ I predict that, as stress increases, test performance
will decrease.
Directional & Causal
◦ I predict that stress causes (leads to) poor
performance on tests.
Research Hypotheses
Deciding between Qualitative &
Quantitative research design
Qualitative Quantitative
Population Purposeful Random
Small n Large n
Population Availability Culturally Recluse
Time availability
Measure Flexible, open ended Specific, objective
Research Question Specific
Knowledge of Content Often minimal Extensive
Time/ Funding Laborious Quick, Cheap (ish)
snapshot

Audience
Non-testable questions
1. How do managers feel about the reorganization?
2. What do residents feel are the most important
problems facing the community?
} How would you describe / convey the
answers to thesequestions?
} Main Disadvantage - No objective cut-off point/
definitive answer
For example:
Testable Questions
1. Is therea significant relationship between the
age of managers and their attitudes
towards the reorganization?
2. Is therea significant difference between white
and minority residents with respect to
what they feel are the most important problems facing
the community for decision-
makers.
Testable vs. Non testable
• Non Experimental
• Survey
• Census – everyone

• Case Study
• Few cases
• Longitudinal
• Correlational
• Relationship of 2
Variables
• Observation (structured,
naturalistic)
• Interviews (clinical,
closed, open-ended)
• Experimental
• Treatment given
Experimental vs. Non
Experimental
Non -Experimental
Causal – Comparative (Not causal)
• Also called “ex post factostudy” – (from after
the action)
• Look back at Demographics to establish causality
• Smoking - Ethical issues with experimental design
Non – Experimental research CAN be over many years
or
observations
As long as thereis no treatment

Variables
• Variable
• Characteristic of person, place, thingthat can
change
• NOT A PERSON or # of PEOPLE
Independent (IV) & Dependent(DV) Variable
• Experimental Studies
• IV manipulated and DV observed
• Independent Variable causes change in the
Dependent Variable
• Non Experimental Studies
• IV & DV observed
• Tryto understand the relationship between them
(correlation)
ØSending rats through a mazegiven different amount
of food
pellets
ØEffects of violent video games on children
Variables
• For a variable to be suitable for scientific study,
it
must be observable and replicable
• Observable: Can be directly or indirectly measured
• Replicable: Can be consistently observed more

than once
Variables
• Independent
• First
• Input
• Predictor
• Stimulus
• Dependent
• Second
• Outcome
• Criterion
• Response
• Can be:
• Mutually Exclusive
• People fit into only one category
• Exhaustive
• There is a response for everyone
• Numeric
• A score
Experimental & Non-Experimental
Research Variables
Scenario –
• Experimental or Non-Experimental

• Independent Variable
• Dependent Variable /s
ØInterested in if free childcare effects college
outcomes
ØDoes our team building weekend do anything?
ØWhich gender drives faster?
ØWhat is the relationship between depressive
symptoms and
athletic performance?
ØCurious about the relationship between fast food
consumption & overall health
ØDoes watching the news cause increased anxiety?
Practice
Scenario Exp or Non Exp IV DV
• Conceptual Definition
• At the level of conceptual definition, you begin
to
specify the different aspects of a variable.
• Operational Definition
• At the level of operational definition, you are
describing how someone would know if a
variable’s
specific aspects are present.
• The exact method, measure, tool, that will be
used in

measurement.
Variable Definitions
Conceptual
MathAchievement
Trust (Workplace)
Depression
Anger
Operational
Score on PSSA Math
Score on the ITA (International
Trust Assessment)
Hamilton Depression Rating
Scale
Yelling, hitting, etc.
Variable Definition(IV or DV)
Types of Variables
• Continuous: Measured along a continuum at

any
place beyond the decimal point, meaning that it
can be measured in whole units or fractional units
• E.g. Olympic sprinters are timed to the nearest
hundredths place (in seconds), but if the
Olympic
judges wanted to clock them to the nearest
millionths
place, they could
Types of Variables
• Discrete: Measured in whole units or categories
that are not distributed along a continuum
• E.g. Number of brothers and sisters you have,
socioeconomic class (working class, middle class,
upper class)
In Groups of 3ish
1. Describe a phenomena / topicof interest
2. Identify the IV and DV in the functional
relationship
3. Consider if it would be studied :
• Experimentally or Non-Experimentally
4. Give the variables clear operational definitions

• Bullying– You are interested in studying the effects
of bullying
and how to decrease / prevent it in workplaceor
scholastic
settings
Questions:
1. What are one (1) directional & one (1) non-
directional
a. What might be an operational definition for
thesevariables?
experimentally?
study?
• Workplace Productivity – You are interested in
the factors that
influence and have relationships with employee’s
productivity in
the workplace.

Questions:
1. What are one (1) directional & one (1) non-
directional
a. What might be an operational definition for
thesevariables?
experimentally?
study?
Assignments
• Quiz 1
• Due by 5:30 PM on 9/14
• Research Proposal Assignment
• Due by 5:30 PM on 9/21
• See.pdf on BB
Propose a Research Topic Due Thursday 9/21

In 1-2 Typed Page (50 pts.)
◦ Describe the topic and rationale for study.
� Why do you want to study? Purpose? Who benefits?
◦ State and explain two (2) different research hypotheses. They
can be
related and together help to answer a research question.
� Categorize the hypotheses
◦ What are the IV’s and DV?
� Give at least two (2) operational and conceptual definitions
for
your variables?
◦ How might this be studied?
� Qualitative vs. Quantitative
� Experimental vs. Non Experimental
10_ Topic Discussion and Rationale
Purpose (Theoretical, Anecdotal, Benefits, etc.?)
10_ Research Hypothesis
10_ Variables identified and described
Independent
Dependent
10_ Variables Operationally Defined
10_ Possible Method of study
50_ Total

Week 3 – 91417Today• 2nd Research Example• Q.docx

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Week 3 – 91417Today• 2nd Research Example• Q.docx