1. dr

2. Contents
Introduction
Difference b/w Qualitative & Quantitative research
Uses of Qualitative research
Steps in designing a qualitative study
Qualitative research methods
Data analysis in Qualitative research
Sampling methods in Qualitative Research
Combining qualitative & quantitative methods

3. Consists of an investigation that:
seeks answers to a question
systematically uses a predefined set of procedures
to answer the question
collects evidence
produces findings that were not determined in
advance
produces findings that may be applicable beyond
the immediate boundaries of the study

4. RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE MIXED QUALITATIVE
APPLIED
STUDY
TRADITIONAL
QUALITATIVE STUDY

5. Includes collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by
observing what people do and say. Qualitative research
refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions,
characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of
things.
Historical background
Qualitative research has its root in anthropology,
philosophy & sociology
First used by anthropologist & sociologist as a method of
inquiry in early decades of 20th century

6. What is ?
It seeks to understand a given research problem or
topic from the perspectives of the local population it
involves.
Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining
culturally specific information about the values,
opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular
populations.
The Scope of Qualitative Research is to explore &
understand through
1. Participant’s ‘Lived experience’
2. “Insider’s” perspectives
3. In the Context of the given situation

7. Characteristics of Qualitative research
Concerned with generation of hypothesis, not with testing
Problems & methods tend to evolve over course of study
Phenomena are examined from participants perspectives
Only a few participants are involved in the study
Focuses on a holistic view of what is being studied
(via documents, case histories, observations and
interviews)
Concerned with the changing and dynamic nature of
reality
Concentrate upon exploring the rationale of beliefs,
attitude
& behaviour
Not based on measures of quantity or frequency

8. Characteristics of Qualitative research
Emphasis is given to meanings, expressions &
experience of all the participating individual, each
individual perception should be given equal importance
Emphasis on observation and interpretation.
Aim is to see the world through the eyes of the subjects.
This requires that data collection are relatively open &
unstructured
Data are collected within the context of their natural
occurrence
Findings are described in words rather than numbers

9. When
not to
use QR
Results are to be
projected to the
total population
When numbers are
needed to make a
decision (what
proportion of people )
To identify the
important problem to
be solved at
community/ local/
policy levels
To inform what people
are doing, thinking,
and saying about a
problem
Generate a list of
options for
interventions
To investigate how
best to implement
promising
interventions
When
QR to
be used

10. Functions Of
1. Developing and delineating program elements
before a quantitative evaluation
2. Generating theory
3. Boosting the power of quantitative design&
Broadening the observation field
4. Analyzing process and individual cases to
explain the how and why of an outcome.

11. What can we learn from
?
Its strength lies in its ability to provide complex
textual descriptions of how people experience a
given research issue.
provides information about the “human” side of an
issue
It help us to interpret and better understand the
complex reality of a given situation and the
implications of quantitative data.

12. Forms Of Qualitative
Data
Field Notes
Audio- Video
Recordings
Diagrams
Of:
•Participant
Observations
•Observations
made during
FGDs& In- Depth
Interviews
Of:
• Focused
Group
Discussions
• In- Depth
Interviews
E.g.
Sociograms

13. Difference between
qualitative and quantitative research

15. 1. Seek to confirm hypotheses
about phenomena
2. Use highly structured
methods such as
questionnaires, surveys&
structured observation
3. To quantify variation
4. To predict causal
relationship
5. To describe characteristics
of a population
1. Seek to explore phenomena
2. Use semi-structured methods
such as interviews, focus
groups, and participant
observation
3. To describe variation
4. To describe& explain
relationship
5. To describe individual
experiences& group norms

16. 6. Closed- ended
7. Numerical (obtained by assigning
numerical values to responses)
8. Study design is stable from
beginning to end
9. Participant responses do not
influence or determine how and
which questions researchers ask
next- Researcher is limited by the
Questionnaire
10. Study design is subject to
statistical assumptions and
conditions
6. Open- ended
7. Textual (obtained from audiotapes,
videotapes, and field notes)
8. Some aspects of the study are
flexible
9. Participant responses affect how
and which questions researchers
ask next- Researcher may use
probes
10. Study design is iterative, that is,
data collection and research
questions are adjusted according
to what is learned

17. Example:
Close Ended Questions
Do you give OPV to your child
during PPI rounds?
Yes, Always
No, Never
Sometimes/Occasionally
Most of the times
Example:
Open Ended Questions:
What are your opinions
about giving OPV to
children, during PPI rounds?
Probe: Why do you think
that giving OPV can harm
your child?

18. Example:
Smoking and lung cancer
Epidemiological/ Quantitative research establishes the
association b/w smoking and lung cancer
Qualitative methodology helps to explain:
◦ Reasons why people continue to smoke despite the evidence
◦ Social meaning of smoking (e.g. among women and the youth)
Qualitative Research seeks to discover meaning and build
theory
◦ Why do girls take up smoking?
Quantitative Research seeks to test and refine theory:
◦ What is the relative importance of age, class, and family type as
predictors of girls taking up smoking ?

19. 1. Establish the general problem to be investigated
◦ Of interest to the researcher
2. Stating the purpose of the study
◦ Based on problem analysis
◦ Arises from previous studies
◦ Guided by literature review
◦ Determined by who will use the research results
3. Develop a conceptual/theoretical framework for the
study
4. Formulate general and specific research questions
(aims and objectives)
5. Select a qualitative research design

20. 6. Select a sampling strategy
◦ Establish site of the research
◦ Selection of participants
7. Ensure trustworthiness of the study
8. Determine data collection methods and develop
data collection tools
9. Establish how data will be managed and analyzed
10. Interpretation and discussion of findings
11. Prepare research report

21. Methods
1. Observational methods
Participant observation
Non -Participant observation
2. Interview techniques
Structured
Semi-structured
Unstructured
3. Focus group discussions
(FGDs)
4. Case studies
5. Sorting & ranking methods
6. Personal documents &
Accounts
Diaries
Critical incidents
Stories
7. Projective techniques
Free word association
Sentence completion
Story completion
Cartoon completion
8. Other methods

22. A qualitative research method in which researchers
gather data either by observing or by both observing and
participating, to varying degrees, in the study-community’s
daily activities, in community settings
relevant to
the research questions. (Example at bars, brothels,
waiting areas, religious settings)
Approach the participants in their own environment
Don’t leak out secrets!
Take Field notes

23. Complete observer
Behind one-way mirror, invisible role
Observer as participant
Known, overt observer
Participant as observer
Pseudo-member, research role known

24. It provides Familiarity with the cultural milieu
It can Uncover The Unknown Factors- provide information
previously unknown to researchers that is crucial for
project design, data collection& interpretation of other
data.
But:
It is Time- consuming
Memory based,
Inherently Subjective so, Practice to be objective rather
than narrating subjectively.

25. Determine the purpose of the participant observation
activity as related to the overall research objectives and the
population(s) to be observed.
Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s)
Decide how field staff will pair off to cover all sites most
effectively.
Consider how you will present yourself in terms of
appearance and explain your purpose to others if
necessary.
Plan how you will take notes during the participant
observation activity.

26. Schedule time soon after participant observation to
expand your notes.
Type your notes into computer files using the standard
format set for the study

27. A qualitative research method in which a
researcher/interviewer gathers data about an
individual’s perspectives on a specific topic(s)
The researcher/interviewer engages with the individual
by posing questions in a neutral manner, listening
attentively to responses, and asking follow-up questions
and probes based on those responses.

28. Interview techniques
1. Structured interviews: Impose fixed structure on ordering
& wording of questions & categories for coding response
2. Semi-structured
Less rigid than structured
Respondents asked a series of open ended questions and
answers are recorded in full.
Interviewer is free to probe to amplify & clarify responses
and follow up any interesting idea or to delete any
question
3. Unstructured : Minimal influence on the structure of
schedule(In-depth interview)

29. Types Of Questions
Experience and behavior questions
Opinion and value questions
Feeling questions
Knowledge questions
Background/demographic questions

30. Purpose Of Interviews
It help us to Elicit
◦ Feelings
◦ Thoughts
◦ Opinions
◦ Previous experiences
◦ The meaning people give to certain events

31. Advantages Disadvantages
Emic perspective
Facilitate rapport
More appropriate in rural
setting
Responses more valid
Explanatory tool
• Replicability difficult
• Time consuming
• Results not strictly
comparable
• Require familiarity with
language and culture

32. Steps in conducting in-depth interview
1. Plan how to conduct the in-depth interview
Planning decisions & preparations. Includes
Designing the study,
Identify target group,
Preparing for the field work,
Collecting & analyzing
2. Decide who the respondents will be
Determine who to select for the interviews
Example - To identify representative mothers of children under
age 5 recently treated for ARI
Contact selected health facility
Get list of children under age 5 treated for ARI
Decide on no. of mothers to be interviewed
Contact & arrange for interviews

33. Steps in conducting in-depth interview
3. Prepare interview guide
 Framing the questions
List the most important topics to be explored in the study
Example
• Overuse of antibiotics for ARI,
• Specific topics like antibiotics used, symptoms associated, reason for prescribing
antibiotics for common cold , reported pt. preference etc.
Identify relevant subtopics for each study topics
Belief about respiratory infections
Efficacy of antibiotics in treating infections

34. Steps in conducting in-depth interview
Check each question against the overall study questions &
remove those that are not needed
Ensure questions are
Clear & unambiguous
Simple & easy to understand
Not answerable by simple yes or no
Reasonable & within the experience of the respondents
Construction of probes
Probes are devices used to prompt a respondent to
speak further when an initial question fails to elicit the
desired information
Sequence of topics

35. Steps in conducting in-depth interview
4. Select interviewers
Role of interviewer is to keep discussion going by asking
useful questions until he gets an appropriate answer
Qualities include self confidence, ability to establish
rapport, articulate, ability to probe
5. Train the interviewers
Duration of training : depends on size of study & caliber
of team. May take 2-3 days
Training session should include both theoretical &
practical aspects

36. Steps in conducting in-depth interview
6. Conduct actual interviews
Introduction Interviewing Taping the interview
Explain the purpose & objective of study
Describe how respondent was selected for interview
Explain who has access to the data ,how confidentiality
will be maintained & the respondent has the right to
terminate the interview any time
Explain what will happen once research is over
Managing the field data: Field editing, De-briefing,
Transcribing

37. Steps in conducting in-depth interview
7. Analyzing the data
Categorize interview material into various subtopics
Label each category using appropriate headings
Describe & interpret the major findings
8. Writing a report
Outline of report
Title of study
Objectives & methods , including data analysis
Major findings
Discussion
Conclusion & Recommendations

38. Focus group discussions are group discussions
with a small group of individuals from a well defined
target population on pre-selected topics that rely on
interaction between group members, under the guidance
of a trained facilitator.
Each participant is stimulated by the comments
of others and in turn stimulate them.

39. What is
“It is a qualitative method which helps to find out the ‘How’
& ‘Why’ of human behaviour.”
It can provide insight into how a group thinks about an
issue, the range of opinions and ideas, and the
inconsistencies and variations that exist in a particular
community in terms of beliefs and their experiences
&practices.
Purpose of
◦ Get a variety of perspectives/reactions to a certain issue
◦ In a short time
◦ Mainly for eliciting opinions, values, feelings in the group-the
group norms

40. The topic should is narrowly focused
Selection of participants is also focused by targeting
individuals who meet specific criteria
Topic should be of interest to both the investigator and
respondents.
The emphasis should be on interaction between or
among the group members.

41. Cost-effective
Quality of data enhanced by group participants
Can quickly assess the extent to which there is
agreement or diversity on an issue
Enjoyable for participants
Outside of natural setting
Silences the minority view
Responses by each participant may be Constrained
Restricts number of questions that can be asked
Requires group process skills
Confidentiality not assured
Explores major themes, but fails to catch subtle
differences

42. Adequate knowledge on background information
about the topic and experience in conducting FGD
Good listening skills
Leadership skills
Relationship with the participants
Patience and flexibility
Clothing

43. Orient the group in a proper manner and Put forth issues/
sub issues in appropriate questions.
Create a non-judgmental environment in which group
members feel free to express.
Encourage interaction between participants.
Encourage quiet participants to speak up and quieten
garrulous talkers.
Guide the direction of discussion
Pace the discussion appropriate for the participant
Subtly control the time allotted to each question
Moderator does not himself take part in the discussion

44. Primarily an observer, tape record the session.
Observe the nature of interaction, record non-verbal
communication & level of consensus
Should know what type of data she/he is expected to
collect.
If facilitator has omitted a question from the guide, the
recorder can point them out (at the end).
Identify the speakers. Note down the first few words
every time a new person speaks and make brief notes of
the content.
Level of participation of each (sociogram-Diagrammatic
representation of entire session of FGD)

45. 8
6
2
9
1
7
5
4
3
10
11
FOCUSED GROUP
DISCUSSION
(SOCIOGRAM)

47. Focus Group Discussions
Advantages
1. Synergism. When a group of people with similar
interests discuss an issue together, they are likely to
produce a richer insight, wider range of information,
and innovative ideas than will individual responses
obtained privately.
2. Snowballing. In a group discussion, one person’s
comment often triggers a chain reaction from the other
participants and generates more views.
3. Stimulation. Once the focus group discussion is
underway, general level of excitement over the topic
increases, and a large number of respondents want to
express their ideas and expose their feelings.

48. Focus Group Discussions
4. Security. Because of homogeneity of composition,
focus group participants have similar feelings. This
enables them to feel comfortable and uninhibited to
express their ideas/feelings.
5. Spontaneity. In focus groups participants are not
required to answer specific questions. Their responses
can be spontaneous and unconventional reflecting an
accurate idea of their views
6. Speed. Because people discuss issues simultaneously,
data collection and analysis in focus group proceed
relatively quickly.
7. Inexpensive. Considering the richness of output, it is a
relatively inexpensive method of data collection.

49. Focus Group Discussions
Disadvantages
1. Lack of representativeness. results of focus group
discussions are not projectable and should not be the only
basis for decision making.
2. Misjudgment: FDG are susceptible to client and researcher
biases so the results could be easily misjudged.
4. Misuse. Focus groups can be misused and abused by
considering the results as conclusive rather than exploratory.
5. Moderation. Skills of the moderator is a major determinant
of FDG success and the quality of their results, but they are
rare
6. Difficult to analyze. The unstructured nature of the
responses in FDG makes coding, analysis, and
interpretation difficult.
7. People may be reluctant to talk in each other’s presence

50. Case studies
A case study is an exploration of a ‘bounded system’ …
over time through detailed, in-depth data collection
involving multiple sources of information rich in context.
This bounded system is bounded by time and place,
and it is the case being studied – a program, an event,
an activity, or individual.
Types
Observational : conducted over long period of time
Oral history case study
Clinical case study
For example in-depth exploration of a malnourished child
from mother & family about food hygiene, episodes of
diarrhea /other diseases, breast feeding, weaning/type of
weaning foods

51. Advantages
Case studies
Case studies underlines the observations & concepts in
natural settings which are difficult to be quantified
otherwise
Useful in knowing beliefs , attitudes & perceptions of
people & their role in complex social phenomena
Details on single phenomenon can be collected which is
not possible in survey methods
Disadvantages
Essentially qualitative & can not be put to statistical
analysis and treatment
Findings can not be generalized on a wider scale

52. Projective techniques
Researcher asks the informant to react to some kind of
visual/verbal stimulus
The researcher sets up a situation for the respondents asking
them to express their own views, or to complete/ interpret some
ambiguous stimulus presented to them.
Commonly used techniques :
Free word association
• A list of carefully selected stimulus words or phrases related to
the topic of research are read out, one at a time, to a
respondent.
• The respondent is asked to respond with the first word or
phrase that comes to his/her mind. The list of words should
contain a mixture of test words and neutral words.

53. Projective techniques
Sentence Completion(extension of the free-word association
test. )
• In this technique, the respondent is presented with some
sentences containing incomplete stimuli and is asked to
complete them.
• E.g. if I would discover that my sweeper has TB,
I would ……………..(Complete the sentence)
Unfinished scenario/story completion
• This technique is similar to the sentence completion test.
• However, in this technique, the respondent is presented with
a specific scenario containing incomplete stimuli and is
asked to complete the scenario.
- Like the free-word association method, interpreting and
analysing data obtained from these techniques is also

54. Projective techniques
Cartoon completion test
• In the cartoon technique, the
respondent is shown a comic-strip
like cartoon with two characters in
a conversation.
• While the speech of one character
is shown in his/her balloon, the other
balloon is empty.
• The respondent is asked to assume
the role of the other person and fill the
empty balloon with a speech.

55. Other methods
Delphi technique
Consensus arising method, first used in World War 2
The delphi was designed for non-interacting groups.
Determine the extent to which a group of experts or lay
people agree or disagree on a particular topic
Some of the tasks that the delphi can help to address are:
determining priorities, setting goals, establishing future
directions
designing needs assessment strategies & improve service
delivery
evaluating programs or alternative plans
Aggregating judgments or views of special interests or
opposing groups

56. Other methods
Typically, the process takes a no. of rounds
In first round a knowledgeable group expresses opinions
on a specific subject & select suitable experts to
participate in the subsequent round
Comments are put in form of questionnaire & in second
round, experts are asked to rank the comments given in
the first round
This is then summarized & sent back to the experts in third
round to rethink on subject
The re-rankings are then analyzed for consensus.
If there is no consensus , the process of repeat rounds is
continued till consensus emerges

57. Other methods

58. Other methods
Nominal group technique
Also consensus method, Unlike Delphi method, here a
highly structured meeting is planned with 9-12 relevant
experts & decision are taken on a specific subject of
concern
Steps
Participants in the group spend time to write down their views
Each participant contributes one idea to the facilitator who
records it and Similar suggestions are grouped together
Wherever appropriate, there is group discussion to clarify &
evaluate each idea
Each participant privately ranks each idea
The ranking is tabulated & presented
Overall ranking is discussed & re-ranked
Final rankings are tabulated & the results fed back to participants

59. Other methods
Grounded Theory
Rooted in social sciences
Emphasizes the development of
theory which is grounded in data
systematically collected and
analysed (constant comparative
analysis to produce substantive
theory)
Relationships between
categories identified to develop
formal theory
Develops theory from data
rather than applying a theory to
the data.

60. Other methods
Narrative research method
Uses multistep in research
In first stage a workshop is conducted with
leaders/experts to identify key events for that area of
research
This is followed by stories/questionnaires collected
from the field
Final stage is of conducting a workshop with same
group of people who attended the first event to discuss
& analyze findings
Aim is to find out realistic approach which is evidence
based

61. Other methods
Ethnography (Ethno = people Graphy = describing
something)
Rooted in anthropology
special type of studies where investigators goes & live
with the community
studies cultural patterns and perspectives of participants
in their natural settings
Phenomenology
Rooted in philosophy
Analysis /description of everyday life
How is each individual’s subjective reality applied to
make experiences meaningful?

62. Goal
DATA ANALYSIS
To create meaning out of raw data
Qualitative data analysis is a non-linear process
Numerous rounds of questioning, reflecting, rephrasing,
analysing, theorising, verifying after each observation,
interview, or FDG
Process of data analysis
Comprehending the data
Synthesizing : piecing & linking different parts of the data set
Theorizing : develop a system of logical statements that
explain the relation b/w 2 or more concepts, phenomena, or
human characters.
Re contextualizing : categorization system is refined
according to emergent themes, research questions, theoretical
frameworks, or data itself

63. Steps in qualitative data analysis
1. Data reduction :refers to the process of selecting ,
simplifying, abstracting, & transforming data
2. Data display : Display is an organized compressed
assembly
of information that permits conclusion drawing
Most data initially displayed as text
As analysis proceeds, displays may move to more compact
& accessible forms such as matrices, network diagram,
graphs etc.
3. Conclusion drawing & verification :
Initial interpretation of data may be vague
Interpretation of data become more focused as data
collection & analysis proceeds
Final conclusion should be explicit & grounded within data

64. Coding
Beginning of data analysis but linked to original
research questions
Identification of key themes & pattern within data
Codes are tools to think with in a systematic &
organized way
Intended outcome is to create 3-8 summary categories
When inductive coding finishes up with more than 8
major themes, need to re-examine them

65. Types of coding
Deductive :
• uses categories constructed from theory in order to
develop a coding framework
• Use existing literature/studies or theoretical frames
to develop hypothesis or categories for coding prior
to fieldwork
Inductive :
• Designs the coding schemes from the data
collected through participant observation, in-depth
interview, FGDs etc.
• Develop a model or theory about underlying
structure of experiences or processes evident in
raw data

66. Validity, in qualitative research, refers to whether the
findings of a study are true and certain—
-“true” in the sense that research findings accurately reflect the
situation, and
-“certain” means that findings are supported by the evidence.
Triangulation is a method used by qualitative
researchers to check and establish validity in their studies
by analyzing a research question from multiple
perspectives
Benefits of Triangulation
Advantages of each complement the other
◦ resulting in a stronger research design, and
◦ more valid and reliable findings.
Inadequacies of individual methods are minimized
Triangulation offers a balance between logic and stories

67. Types Of Triangulation
Data triangulation,
Investigator
triangulation,
which entails gathering
data through several
sampling strategies, so
that slices of data at
Theoretical
triangulation,
which refers to the use
different times and
social situations, as
well as on a variety of
people, are gathered
Environmental
Triangulation
It involves the use
of different
locations, settings,
and other key
factors related to
the environment in
which the study
took place, such
as the time, day, or
season to identify
which
environmental
factors, if any,
might influence
the information
that is received
during the study.
Methodological
triangulation,
which refers to the use
of more than one
researcher in the
field to gather and
interpret data.
of more than one
theoretical
position in
interpreting data.
which refers to the
use of more than
one method for
gathering data

68. Unlike quantitative studies, here sample size Is not
determined by conventional formulae, but depends on the
point of Saturation.
Goal is to understand phenomena, not to represent
population, so Select information-rich cases for intensive
study
Minimum samples based on expected reasonable
coverage, given the purpose of the study and constraints

69. Types of purposeful sampling
Snowball sampling :
Very commonly used
method in
qualitative studies
Subject recommends
other people they
know& snowball gets
bigger as more
information rich
cases get included
Opportunistic
sampling
On the spot decision
about sampling to
take advantage of
new opportunities
during data collection
Maximum variation sampling :
Homogenous sampling
:
Aim is to select study units which
represent a wide range of variation
in dimension of interest
E.g. researcher interested in FP
practices assumes religion as
important dimension & takes
participants of different religious
background in the study
Criterion sampling
Set a criteria and pick all
cases that meets the
selected criteria
for example, all ladies six
feet tall, all white cars, all
farmers that have planted
onions
Selecting similar types to
describe a particular group in-depth
E.g. select participants who
have similar demographic
characteristics, age, gender,
education etc.
Used mainly in FGD

70. Typical cases sampling
Selection of cases that illustrate what is typical or average for a
particular phenomenon
Critical case sampling
Selecting cases who for some reason are specially important
This permits logical generalization and maximum application of
information to other cases like If it is true for this one case, it is
likely to be true of all other cases.
E.g. if it happened to so and so then it can happen to anybody
or if so and so passed that exam, then anybody can pass.
Extreme or deviant case sampling
Learn from highly unusual manifestation of phenomenon of
interest such as outstanding successes, notable failures, top of
the class, dropouts, exotic events, crises etc.

71. Sampling contrasting cases
Aim is to explain problems by establishing which factors
are associated with it
E.g. reason for not using FP services can be studied by
comparing women using FP methods with women not
using the methods
Used to select participants for FGDs. Each group is
homogenous but for different groups one selects
contrasting cases (e.g. men and women, user and non
users)
Convenience sampling :
Selecting whoever is easiest, closest & most convenient to
save time & money
Least desirable

72. Combining qualitative & quantitative methods
Has been subject of heated debate as the Purist in both camps
have argued against this union
In recent times, use of two methods in combination has gained
popularity
Different ways in which two techniques can be combined
A. Qualitative before quantitative
Qualitative techniques can be used to provide much needed
information when venturing into new areas
Use of qualitative method to check assumptions & refine
research questions is valuable across & within culture
Also useful during the development of measurement scale
e.g., Exploratory Pilot study precedes Experimental design

73. Combining qualitative & quantitative methods
B. Quantitative before Qualitative
Interpretation of quantitative findings can draw upon qualitative
methods for valuable insights and illustrations
Quantitative studies can yield hard data whose meaning may be
unclear
Qualitative studies help to provide clarity to such data
C. Qualitative & Quantitative together
The two can be used together in the same study to extend &
compliment findings
Both types of information together will provide a better basis for
planning strategies for prevention
e.g., Case study & Survey methods

74. Combining qualitative & quantitative methods
Benefits of combining method
Advantages of each complement the other, resulting in a
stronger research design, and more valid and reliable
findings.
Inadequacies of individual methods are minimized
Offers a balance between logic and stories
Practical Issues
Combination demands access to a wide range of expertise
Necessitates need for a team approach
Give careful consideration to design issues
multiple methods may result in data that confirm or
contradict each other

75. NATURALISTIC – Natural setting as source of data
INDUCTIVE – It seeks to build theory from data & avoid imposing
researcher’s own categories of analysis
HOLISTIC – It looks at the phenomenon in totality & takes an
overall perspective
TRIANGULATION – Comparing data collected from different
methods
FLEXIBLE DESIGN- Emergent design as opposed to pre-determined
design in quantitative methods
INTERPRETIVE – Aimed at discovering the meaning the events
have for the individuals who experience them & interpretation of
these meaning by researcher
PARTICULARISTIC - Guided by objectives
PROBES - are neutral questions, phrases, sounds, and even
gestures interviewers use to encourage participants to elaborate
on their answers and explain why or how

76. .

77. References
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Qualitative Research Sonia Ospina Robert F. Wagner
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78. www.scribd.com/doc/50828882/Qualitative-research-core-concepts
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