Sharma2017

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING-GREEN TECHNOLOGY Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 323-334 JULY 2017 / 323
© KSPE and Springer 2017
3D Printing: It’s Microfluidic Functions and Environmental
Impacts
Abhishek Sharma1
, Surajit Mondal2
, Amit Kumar Mondal3
, Soumadeep Baksi4
,
Ravi Kumar Patel2
, Won-Shik Chu5
, and Jitendra K. Pandey2,#
1 Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Ariel University, Ariel, 40700, Israel
2 Department of Research & Development, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Bidholi, Via Prem Nagar, Dehradun, 248007, India
3 Department of Electronics, Instrumentation & Control, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Bidholi, Via Prem Nagar, Dehradun, 248007, India
4 Department of Health Micromachined & Environment, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Bidholi, Via Prem Nagar, Dehradun, 248007, India
5 Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Seoul National University, 1, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
# Corresponding Author / E-mail: jeetusnu@gmail.com, TEL: +91-7579216817, FAX: +91-135-2776095, 2776090
KEYWORDS: 3D microfluidic devices, Additive manufacturing, Stereo-lithography, Occupational health, Environmental management, 3D printing
Innovative micro products essential for the utilization of a wide variety of macro subjects have complicated three-dimensional (3D)
microstructures in addition to a high aspect ratio. Till date, many micro manufacturing processes have been developed, but a specific
class of such processes is applicable for fabrication of true 3D micro assembly. The aptitude to process a broad range of materials
and the ability to fabricate functional and geometrically complicated, 3D microstructures provides the additive manufacturing (AM)
processes which significant profits over traditional methods, such as lithography-based or micromachining approaches investigated
widely in the past. In this paper, 3D micro-AM processes have been classified into three main groups, including scalable micro-AM
systems, 3D direct writing, and hybrid processes, and the key processes have been reviewed comprehensively. Principle and recent
progress of each 3D micro-AM process have been described, and the advantages and disadvantages of each process have low-cost
along with its occupational health safety & environmental issues.
Manuscript received: September 2, 2016 / Revised: October 17, 2016 / Accepted: April 2, 2017 (Invited Paper)
1. Introduction
3D printing technology has found a wide range of applications,
varying from simple prototypes to the straight production of any part
of a gadget,1,2
and demonstrates the capability to achieve the laboratory
work on microscale level.3
The remarkable feature of 3D printing is
owing to its typical characteristics such as fast prototyping,
compatibility, eco-friendly and low cost as compared with the
traditional process. By the application of 3D printing, it is easy to
overcome the environmental effects. Polylactic acid (PLA), a
biodegradable material has been used for 3D printing, which results in
low carbon emission during the fabrication of prototypes.4
Microdevices obtained by 3D printing have the ability to perform
quantitative analysis and correspondingly apply it to food, medicine,
and health care industries.5,6
Comparing with alternate methods of
fabrication and equipment used for the purpose of diagnosis or to
manufacture portable medical tools at the micro level, this process has
indeed contributed on a great scale.7,8
Among the recent developments
in the field of 3D printing, researchers have implemented a new hybrid
3D printing technology in order to create advanced products.9
For developing customized printed optics as a product for end users,
3D printing technology is most suitable in comparison to contemporary
techniques.10
Researchers are trying to manufacture micro batteries
having considerably enhanced power density through the process of 3D
printing,11
where Sun et al. conducted experiments to observe the effect
of solidification of photopolymer on the characteristics of the apparatus
fabricated by using micro stereolithography technique.12
Williams et al. have developed a circuit including several layers by
the application of direct writing (DW) and stereolithography (SL)
techniques.13
The fused deposition has into for the fabrication in which
the polymer filament is initially heated in semiliquid state and then
dropped on a platform layer by layer.14
This technology has the
capacity to fabricate devices at the micro level with around mechanical
strength by varying the infill percentage.15
The design of capsular
device by using fused deposition modeling, for drug delivery by using
neat hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) filament was successfully
REVIEW PAPER DOI: 10.1007/s40684-017-0038-6
ISSN 2288-6206 (Print) / 2198-0810 (Online)

324 / JULY 2017 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING-GREEN TECHNOLOGY Vol. 4, No. 3
established.16
Fused deposition is one of the 3D printing techniques,
which is low cost and silicon-based technology only to fabricate
customized oral drug dosage.17
Drug loaded tablets with extended
release profiles are possible to fabricate only by implementing
stereolithography based 3D printing technology.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is another kind of technology used in
3D printing. In this technique minute particle of glasses, plastics and
ceramics are fused together with the help of heat, produced by high
power laser workplace fabricate solid 3D structure.18
Compared with
traditional methods, parts fabricated by SLS technique demonstrate
better material properties (e.g. fatigue, toughness and tensile
strength).19
Researchers have effectively fabricated complex carbon/
carbon composite parts having the density of 1.5 g/cm3
and the bending
strength around 100 MPa.20
Using SLS technique the layer deposition
and parameters related to laser scanning, two ceramic parts having a
density of 85% with grain size 5 m were also fabricated
successfully.21,22
The main purpose of applying 3D printing technology in the
development of micro parts is not only to design the parts in a single
step but also to enhance the mechanical performance of the micro parts.
This approach gets accomplished by the synergetic mixture of essential
materials of the micro part and the curing mechanism during the layer
deposition. The additional trend of using 3D printing in industries is the
fabrication of highly complex parts with high accuracy and to reduce
energy consumption and carbon emission, which is generally not
possible with the traditional process. Gebler et al. have successfully
designed a model of 3D printing that shows the capability to decrease
emission of CO2 by the amount of 130.5-525.5 Mt including energy
consumption of 2.54-9.30 EJ by 2025.23
The main aim of the present review is to present different types of
existing methods used in 3D printing to design and fabricate the parts
at the micro level as well as to evaluate how green 3D manufacturing
process is? 3D printing techniques are classified on the basis of input
material supply: (1) powder, (2) liquid, (3) cell. 3D parts based on
powder supply as input, are fabricated with the use of a heat source. On
liquid based input supply fabrication of 3D parts is done with the
application of extrusion and inkjet process. Techniques related to cell
culture deposition for printing biological parts known as bioprinting are
also described in this article.
2. Classification and Principles of 3D Printing
In order to meet the design specifications related to micro parts,
different 3D printing techniques are introduced based on the
manufacturing principle. Fig. 1 depicts the various types of 3D printing
technologies presently applied for the fabrication of micro parts based
on input material used.
A 3D printed reaction ware having three sealed cubical chambers at
the scale of 20 mm for handling the reaction between catalyst and
reagents has been successfully developed by Kitson et al.,24
where layer
deposition 3D printing technique was used for the development of this
device. A reaction sequence consisting of three steps has been
successfully carried out inside the micro-channel of presented reaction
ware. A Y-shape microfluidic device for determining the viscosity of
the fuel has also been fabricated using Stereolithography (SLA)
technique,25
which monitors the blending of biofuel on the basis of
Hagen Poiseuille equation in real time. Other improvements such as
reusability, accuracy and temperature resistance up to 150o
C were also
incorporated.
A lab-on-chip device was fabricated by using templates, designed
with the help of 3D printer using SLA technique at the resolution of
50 m.26
These templates are eco-friendly and take just around 20
minutes for their fabrication. The technique is useful to reduce
production time, cost and various steps which are involved during the
photolithographic process for developing templates of multiple
thicknesses. A wearable 3D written microfluidic pump for various
biomedical applications has also developed,27
where each part of the
pump was fabricated precisely using fused deposition modeling
technique, where a biodegradable polymer Polylactic acid (PLA) was
used as an input material. This micropump has valveless
electromagnetic actuation system for the flow of biofluids. The flow
rate of biofluid was controlled by changing the frequency of the
electrical signal, and the micro pump demonstrates the capability to
produce lowest flow rate ranging from 2.2 to 2.4 L/min.
A new method was introduced by Paydar et al.,28
in which an
interconnected modular microfluidic device was fabricated by using the
multi-material 3D printing with flexibility. A multi-material as input
materials simultaneously were used for the fabrication of the
microfluidic device. The printed device having the ability to bear the
pressure larger than 400 kPa inside the channel was found, simple to
fabricate, and applicable without the use of any adhesive and
supplementary assembly.
A non-photolithographic technique known as ‘soft lithography’,
where three categories of soft lithography methods including laminar
flow patterning, microfluidic channel patterning and printing through
microcontact were classified.29
By implementing these three methods,
the fabrication of microfluidic devices can be completed easily in short
time span and at low cost without using any controlled environment.
Fig. 1 Classification of 3D printing technologies on the basis of
inputs

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING-GREEN TECHNOLOGY Vol. 4, No. 3 JULY 2017 / 325
An advanced method for the manufacturing of modified biodegradable
microfluidic devices has developed for non-expert user,30
in which
parts of the device were fabricated and assembled together to form a
direct functional microfluidic device. O-rings and metal pins were used
in combination to increase the connectivity of the microfluidic device.
The ability of biosensing of the microfluidic channel was also tested
successfully by the detection of a biomarker named as alpha-
fetoprotein (AFP). A unique method for calculation of viscosity of fluid
was introduced by Venkateswaran et al.,31
where an opto-microfluidic
device was fabricated by implementing SLA technique at the resolution
of 500 µm and milk was used as a testing fluid for measuring the
viscosity. Fabricated device was able to detect even 1% adulteration in
milk and was also with in terms of robustness and durability.
Direct-write assembly method was implemented to fabricate 3D
microvascular networks,32
where the universal network of channels in
cylindrical form was fabricated having a diameter varying from 10 m
to 300 m was fabricated. It has been observed that the introduced
method for fabrication was different from conventional methods
modeling flexibility and rapidness. A 3D printed microfluidic device
with a suitable number of inlets, outlets and channel length at the scale
of 100 m was successfully implemented,33
where fabricated fluidic
device performed as a reaction ware in which supramolecular chemical
reactions were carried out. For the real-time observation electrospray
ionization mass spectrometer with high resolution was used, where
flow rate was controlled inside the microchannel with the help of
automatic control system.
In order to detect electrochemical flow inside the microchannel, 3D
printing technique was demonstrated as a sustainable fabrication
method,34
where fused deposition modeling method was employed to
reduce the steps used for sealing the device without any adhesives,
screws or waxes. Appropriate numbers of electrodes were used for
electrochemical detection inside the microchannel. The dimensions of
the channel such as length, height and width were decided in such a
way that laminar flow will occur inside the channel of the microfluidic
device.
Additionally, a feasibility study was performed which clearly
depicted that 3D printing method based on stereolithography technique
has more potential compared to conventional methods.35
A microfluidic
device consists of 8 parallel channels having the width of 3 mm and
height of 1.5 mm was fabricated by implementing stereolithography
technique, where connecting syringe pumps through threaded fittings
were used for molecular transport inside the channel. This method of
fabrication was found very suitable at micro-level for testing of drugs.
3D printing technique was also introduced as a potential fabrication
technique to develop the complete microfluidic device in a single
step.36
2.1 Stereolithography (SLA) Technique
Stereolithography is one of the oldest 3D printing techniques
initiated by the industries in 1986 and revolutionized the 3D printing
process by removing the need for ineffective and expensive methods of
fabrication. Stereolithography technique is the first and most used solid
freeform manufacturing technology having high accuracy, efficiency
and surface texture quality as compared with traditional manufacturing
technologies. SLA technique has significant applications in the
different industry sector and also in the field of biomedical, food for
research purposes.37
In order to fabricate a 3D structure with stereolithography
technique, the first step is to create the digital model of the structure
using computer-aided design software (CAD). Preparing digital models
is the first transformed into a standard tessellation language (.stl) file
format. The surface geometry of 3D model has to be fabricated in the
form of interconnecting tessellated triangles, followed by utilizing the
dedicated software into the sequential layer of desired thickness,
resolution and accuracy. The resulting data is then transferred to
printing apparatus, which fabricates the 3D structure layer by layer
starting from bottom to up. The resulting 3D model is then exposed to
UV rays for 600 seconds for post-curing in a different chamber. Post
curing process enhances the mechanical properties of the printed 3D
structure. Fig. 2 depicts the procedure for the fabrication of 3D model
via stereolithography technique. A 3D printed microfluidic device was
introduced by Erkal et al.,38
in which Stereolithography technique was
implemented to fabricate electrode materials for the detection of
neurotransmitter and measuring the amount of oxygen existing in the
red blood cells. The electrodes used in this device are changeable and
green, which is a noteworthy development apart from the conventional
design methods. Dragone et al.,39
fabricated first 3D printed reactors at
the micro level for synthesizing imines and to carry out the reaction
between the various range of primary amines and aldehydes.
2.2 Photo-Masking Technique
Photo-Masking technique was first developed by the Cubital Ltd.,
helpful to solidify the entire layer of liquid at a single time. It uses
photopolymer (acrylate) in liquid form as an input material. While
fabricating the 3D part from this technique, a mask gets created with
the help of electrostatically charging process. During this process, a
thin film of liquid photopolymer is spread all over the surface of the
workplace. After that, the mask plate which is composed of a negative
image of the cross-section slice get placed on the deposited thin film
and kept under exposure of ultraviolet light for the duration of 2
seconds. The area which comes under the exposure gets solidified and
area that comes under the mask remains in liquid form. For the support
of overhang and isolated parts, a liquid polymer has to be removed by
Fig. 2 Fabrication of 3D model with stereolithography technique

the utilization of vacuum pressure and the blank space is filled with
wax at some temperature. As the wax gets solidify, the entire surface
composed of wax and polymer gets milled with the help of cutter at
desired thickness. For the next film of liquid, the mask plate gets again
discharged for the succeeding cross section of the slice of a 3D part.
Until the completion of 3D part, the process is repeated. After
fabrication of the part, the wax acting as a support was heated either by
hot water or microwave energy. This process is less time consuming as
it does not require any post-curing.40
Photo-Masking technique is
clearly depicted in Fig 3.
2.3 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Technique
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was firstly utilized by a
company named as Stratasys Inc..41
Where they have developed a 3D
modeler that fabricates the micro parts by the deposition of
thermoplastic material through extrusion. This process is composed of
various steps, where the first step is to feed a spool of the thermoplastic
filament into extrusion head. The movement of the extrusion head in x,
y, and z-direction was controlled with the help of automatic system.
The filament is melted in the form of liquid inside the extrusion head
at 1o
C above the melting point of the thermoplastic material. With the
movement of the extrusion head, the melted material was extruded out
through the nozzle and the inlet amount of material was regulated by
a precision pump. The melted material gets solidify in 1/10 second as
it is deposited on the workplace. After the completion of one layer,
another layer is formed at desired distance by the movement of the
heated head in the z direction. Each successive layer is bonded with
each other due to thermal heating. As FDM process does not require
post curing so it is faster than other available 3D printing techniques.
Fig. 4 clearly depicts the implementation of FDM process for the
fabrication of 3D model.
2.4 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Technique
Selective laser sintering (SLS) Technique was developed at
University of Texas, Austin,42
where firstly polymers and nylon were
used as input material but later on the range was also expanded to
metals and alloys.43
In SLS process, a CO2 laser was utilized for
sintering the successive layers of powder. The laser beam was operated
in two modes first is continuous mode44
and second is pulse mode.45
A
thin coating of powder was deposited in the workplace with the
implementation counter-rotating roller mechanism and powder based
input material was firstly heated to a temperature slightly below the
melting point of the material used. After this laser beam into for tracing
the desired dimension on powder surface up to sintering temperature.
Due to this the surface scanned by laser beam gets bonded.
The un-scanned part of powder surface serves as the support for the
successive layer to reduce the alteration. As the layer of the desired
cross-section was accomplished, the rotating roller levels next layer of
powder on the previously sintered part. In previous years prominence
of SLS technique has been studied with respect to other rapid
prototyping methods,46
materials used and their suitability.47
The
conclusion of the study clearly shows that there is a need for alternative
methods. Fig. 5 depicts the complete manufacturing of the object by
using SLS process.
2.5 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
The LOM procedure is a compelling quick prototyping innovation
with an assortment of utilization outcomes. In the process of
Fig. 3 Photo-Masking technique for designing 3D model
Fig. 4 Fabrication of 3D printed model using fused deposition
modeling (FDM)
Fig. 5 Fabrication of object using SLS process

application of LOM, in fast manufacturing and sequencing, specifically
profitable as a result of the LOM articles' vigor, is timber-like
properties and it’s similarly economical expenses. Unequivocal
application samples in sand throwing, venture throwing, and
earthenware production preparing indicate how a diminishment of vital
procedure steps and process durations can be accomplished by the
utilization of LOM models. To accelerate, the control of the LOM
items’ precision along with solidness amidst various auxiliary
procedures is of unequivocal significance.48
As of now suitability for fast tooling forms has been an exceptional
perspective when contrasting distinctive RP advances. The cases
demonstrated an exceptional aptness of LOM articles in order to
specifically apply in foundry innovation, particularly for: (a) sand
throwing designs, (b) wax infusion molds for speculation throwing and
(c) expert models for silicon forming forms (wax designs for venture
throwing, malleable portions by vacuum projection and RTV, fired
parts by low weight infusion shaping, low liquefying zinc-aluminum
parts. Every one of these applications requires a suitable surface
covering of the LOM objects with exceptional materials for best
example evacuation, strength, and example life.
There are several fields of LOM applications: (a) molding and
plastics processing are processed for vacuum casting/RTV, injection
molding, blow molding, rotational molding, laminating,49
(b) for
foundry technology vacuum forming, sand casting and investment
casting are being done,50
(c) ceramic industry is used for the process of
die casting, pressure die casting, low pressure injection molding,51
(d)
for architecture/civil engineering advertised objects, demonstration
objects are used for process and (e) reproductions of organs and
orthopedic surgery in medicine branch.52
2.6 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
A couple of years ago, 3D printing and additive manufacturing
(AM) were cutting edge advancements and surely understood as
techniques for fast prototyping. Less quick assembling applications
were available (e. g. assembling of dental crowns and extensions).
Today, AM is on the progression of serial creation, commercial
ventures going from aviation and medicinal to vitality and car
advantage from the likelihood to outline and fabricate items in a totally
new manner. These commercial enterprises require a definite
documentation of the procedure incorporating robotized in-procedure
quality examination. A few advances are utilized for quality
confirmation of the procedure and quality review of the parts.
DMLS is an AM procedure53
by which advanced 3D plan
information is utilized to develop a part in layers by keeping the metal
material. The framework begins by applying a slender layer of the
powder material to the building stage. After every layer, a laser shaft
then wires the powder at precisely the focuses characterized by the PC
created information, utilizing a laser filtering optic. The stage is then
brought down and another layer of powder is connected. The material
is molded in order to bond with the layer underneath at the predefined
focuses bringing about a mind boggling part. Along these lines, the part
as well as the last material is made in the process and characterizes the
one of a kind qualities of this innovation. Each and every welding line
makes another miniaturized scale section of the last part. Stacking all
checking data on top of each other, we can envision a 3D model of the
part quality.
Part quality is impacted by the powder material, introduction
parameters and in addition inactive gas stream and temperature at the
building stage. Imperfections like porosity,54
an absence of combination
and unpleasant surfaces can emerge if wrong parameters are utilized.55
Quality certification for this procedure comprises of a few
advancements, e. g. framework observing (checking of machine and
laser parameters), powder bed observing (camera based review of the
powder bed) and diode situated in-procedure checking of the liquefying
process.56
2.7 Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
The configuration of custom or custom-made insert segments has
been the subject of innovative work for quite a long time. Be that as it
may, the monetary practicality of manufacturing such segments has turned
out to be a test.57
New immediate metal creation advances, for example,
Electron Beam Melting (EBM) have generated new potential outcomes.58
Limited element scrutiny was utilized to outline the customized structures,
and the results were tested utilizing motorized testing.
Hip inserts have been effectively implanted since the eighteenth
century. Inflexible obsession strategies got to be prominent with
Charnley's process59
and have had a tall ratio of accomplishment amid
more seasoned patients.60
Notwithstanding, bring down accomplishment
rates have accounted for more youthful patients.61
Cementless inserts
Fig. 6 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) process
Fig. 7 Fabrication process of 3D model using DMLS

have been produced as a distinct option for solidified inserts to give long
haul steadiness. In cementless inserts, the bone-interface exterior is
covered with metallic dots.62
Bone misfortune might bring about testing
modification operation with lesser achievement degree than essential
operations. An addition of a moderately hardened titanium or Co-Cr
system alters the stacking design around the bone. Engh et al.63
testified
that dense stems brought about a five-fold increment in the frequency of
bone reabsorption contrasted with slender stems. Huiskes et al.64
stated
that adaptable materials resources decrease fatigue protecting and bone
resorption. The porosity ranging from 50 to 800 m have been explored
for various inserts. Bobyn et al.65
reported porosities from 50 to 400 m
give most extreme obsession quality. Be that as it may, Clemow et al.66
reported diminishing in skeletal quality and corresponding ingrowth for
expanding pore sizes in the 175-325 m. The writing demonstrates a
few repudiating discoveries in regards to the porosity for ideal
physiological ingrowth, yet the extent is regularly inside of a 50-
800 m. Calculated outlines of empty stems, notched stems, and
measured stem frameworks that represent lesser stress protecting have
been explored utilizing Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Permeable
Tantalum has been produced and utilized for bone in-growth
implementations to enhance the automatic bond in the middle of bone
and embed.
2.8 Selected Heat Sintering (SHS)
SHS is a sort of added substance producing handle and works by
utilizing a hot print head to apply warmth to layers of powdered
thermoplastic. At the point when a layer is done, the powder bed moves
down, and a robotized roller includes another layer of material which
is sintered to frame the following cross-area of the model.67-69
SHS is
best to manufacture economical models for idea assessment, structure,
and practical testing.70
SHS is a Plastics added substance producing
strategy like laser sintering (SLS), the fundamental distinction being
that SHS utilizes a less exceptional hot print head rather than a laser,
in this way making it a less expensive arrangement, and ready to be
minimized to desktop sizes. All-printed hardware is the key innovation
to the ultra-minimal effort, huge range hardware.67,71-73
Kruth et al.74,75
studied all types of SHS techniques and found the wide application of
it in various sector of industries, as a low-cost solution. To demonstrate
this process consolidated with the usage of air-stable carboxylate-
functionalized, high-determination natural transistors were
manufactured in encompassing weight and room temperature without
using any photolithographic steps or requiring a vacuum statement
process. Neighborhood warm control of the laser sintering procedure
could minimize the warmth influenced zone and heat related loss to the
substrate and further upgrade the determination of the procedure. This
nearby nanoparticle testimony and vitality coupling empower a low-
cost process and a low-temperature producing arrangement to
acknowledge extensive region, adaptable gadgets on polymer
substrates.
3. Fabrication of Microfluidic devices in 3D printing
A soft lithography is a different option for silicon-based
micromachining that practices facsimile molding of highly advanced
elastomeric things to create imprints and microfluidic networks. It has
been depicted here an expansion to the delicate lithography worldview,
multi-layer delicate lithography, with which gadgets comprising of
different layers are formed using delicate materials. This strategy is
utilized to manufacture dynamic microfluidic frameworks containing
on-off valves, exchanging valves, and pumps completely out of
elastomer. The delicate quality of these materials permits the gadget
ranges to be diminished by more than two requests of size looked at
with silicon-based gadgets. Alternate favorable circumstances of
delicate lithography, for example, quick prototyping, the simplicity of
creation, and biocompatibility are held.
The utilization of micromachining strategies is becoming quickly,
determined by the achievement of a couple key applications, for
example, micro-invented accelerometers,76,77
pressure sensors,78,79
and
ink-plane print heads.80
New applications are showing up in different
fields, specifically fiber optic infrastructures,81,82
and microfluidics.83,84
The two most far-reaching strategies85,86
for the generation of
microelectromechanical structures (MEMS) are mass micromachining
and surface micromachining.87
Mass micromachining is a technique,
where 3D structures are fabricated by using conventional lithography
technique which is time-consuming and thus not suitable for fast
prototyping.88
Surface micro-machining, conversely, is an added
substance strategy where coatings of semiconductor-sort materials
(polysilicon, metals, silicon nitride, silicon dioxide, etc.) are
consecutively added and designed to make 3D structures. Mass and
Fig. 8 EBM process-I
Fig. 9 EBM process-II

surface micromachining techniques are constrained by the used
materials. The semiconductor-sort materials commonly utilized in mass
and surface micromachining are hardened materials with Young’s
modulus -100 GPa.89
For mass micromachining, wafer-holding
methods must be utilized to make multilayer structures. For surface
micromachining, warm push between layers restricts the aggregate
gadget thickness to approx. 20 pm. Clean-room manufactures and
watchful control of procedure conditions are required to acknowledge
adequate gadget yields.
An alternative microfabrication method considering replication trim
is picking up prominence. Normally, an elastomer is designed by
curing on a micromachined mold. Inexactly termed delicate
lithography, this procedure has been utilized to make blasted grinding
optics, stamps for substance designing,90
and microfluidic gadgets.
Delicate lithography’s focal points incorporate the limit for quick
prototyping, simple creation without costly capital gear, and forgetting
process parameters. Microfluidic devices and mold less than 20 m can
be designed by utilizing multi-nozzles 3D printer.91
A solitary analyst
can plan, print the shape, and make another arrangement of cast
elastomer gadgets inside of 1 day, and consequent elastomer throws can
be made in only a couple of hours. The tolerant procedure parameters
for elastomer throwing permit gadgets to be delivered in encompassing
lab conditions rather than a spotless room. Notwithstanding, delicate
lithography likewise has restrictions: It is generally a subtractive
technique (as in the mold characterizes where the elastomer is
evacuated), and with one and only elastomer layer it is hard to make
dynamic gadgets or moving parts.68
A strategy for holding elastomer
parts by plasma oxidation has been portrayed beforehand and has been
utilized to seal microfluidic channels against level elastomer
substrates.92,93
A new procedure called as “multilayer soft lithography” was
developed, which combines soft lithography with the ability to bond
numerous designed layers of elastomer. Multilayer structures are
generated by holding layers of elastomer, each of which was94
independently thrown from a micromachined mold. The elastomer is a
two-segment expansion cure silicone elastic. The base layer has an
overabundance of one of the parts (A), though the upper layer has an
overabundance of the other (B). After discrete curing of the layers, the
upper layer is expelled from its mold and put on top of the lower layer,
where it frames a hermetic seal. Since every layer has an abundance of
one of the two parts, receptive particles stay at the interface between the
layers. Further curing makes the two layers irreversibly bond: the quality
of the interface measures up to the quality of the mass elastomer. This
process makes a solid three-dimensionally designed structure formed
altogether of elastomer. Extra layers are included by basically rehashing
the procedure: each time the gadget is fixed on a layer of inverse
“extremity” (A versus B) and cured, another layer is included.
The simplicity of creating multilayers makes it conceivable to have
various layers of fluidics, a troublesome errand with traditional
micromachining. The test structure has been made of up to seven
designed layers in this mold, each of approx. 40-micrometer thickness.
Since the gadgets are solid (i.e., the greater part of the layers are made
out of the same material), interlayer grip disappointments and warm
push issues are totally stayed away from. Conductivity increased with
carbon black concentration from 5.6  10-l6 to -5 X (ohm.cm)-'.
Magnetic silicone was created by the addition of iron powder (-1 pm
particle size), where 20% Fe by weight was added. For both conductive
and magnetic silicones, multilayer bonding functioned normally) is
likely to be 750 kPa, permitting extensive avoidances with little tensile
strengths. One can likewise control the physical properties of the
material. The attractive layers have been made of the elastomer by
including fine iron powder and electrically leading layers by doping
with carbon dark over the permeation limit. There is accordingly the
likelihood of making all-elastomer electro-attractive devices. Solid
elastomeric valves and pumps, as other mechanical microfluidic
gadgets, stay away from a few commonsense issues influencing stream
frameworks considering electro-osmotic stream or electrophoresis, for
example, electrolytic air pocket development around the anodes and a
solid reliance of stream on the piece of the stream medium. Electrolytic
air pocket arrangement, although not an issue for research facility
gadgets truly limits the utilization of electro-osmotic stream in
incorporated microfluidic gadgets. Likewise, neither electro-osmotic
nor electrophoretic stream can without much of a stretch be utilized to
stop stream or adjust weight contrasts. This has been manufactured by
the valves utilizing a crossed channel design. Ordinary channels are
100 pm wide and 10 pm high, making the dynamic territory of the
valve 100 pm by 100 pm. The layer of polymer between the channels
was built to be moderately thin (commonly 30 pm). At the point when
weight was connected to the upper channel (“control channel”), the
layer diverts descending.
4. Environmental Impacts
Environmental considerations are mainly related to consumption of
energy, natural resources as well as emission of toxic gasses. 3D
printing technology has the ability to fabricate the parts having eco-
friendly nature. As compared with the traditional manufacturing
process, 3D printing uses optimized design method for fabrication
which automatically reduces the consumptions of energy and natural
resources.95
There are basically two leading methods named as life-
cycle analysis (LCA) and environmental impact assessment (EIA) for
determining the environmental impact. These methods depict that 3D
printing technology has good environmental characteristics. There is no
requirement of cutting fluids and adhesives in the 3D printing process,
which are the prime cause of hazard in fabrication process.96
The
experimental results obtained by applying LCA method clearly showed
that additive laser method reduces total environmental impact up to
70% as compared with traditional manufacturing process.97
Three
adaptive manufacturing (AM) processes named as SLS, SLA and FDM
have been analyzed and found that the energy consumption is very less
compared to conventional fabrication methods. While studying the
performance of equipment based on SLS technique, the mean power
consumption of the equipment was found around 19.6 kWh.98
A
comparison between 3D printing manufacturing and traditional
manufacturing has been done on the basis of LCA method.99
Two
processes named as FDM and Inkjet were compared with computer
numerical control (CNC) milling machine (one of the traditional
process) and it was found that in aspects of environmental impact 3D
printing process is more suitable and sustainable than any other

traditional manufacturing process. Very recently, Kreiger et al.
investigated LCA for recycling the high-density polyethylene used as
input material for the 3D printing process and by comparing energy and
greenhouse gas emission for conventional and LCA recycling, a low
environmental impact of LCA was found.100
5. Conclusion
This paper provides pointers for the clarification and the principles
of 3D printing. A comparative analysis has been performed across the
several existing 3D printing techniques considering the material, size,
support and layer thickness. Additionally, a schematic focus has been
on occupational health safety and environmental issues, and it
provides a comprehensive understanding of the safety aspects that
people working with the sector should adhere to reduce its impacts on
man and environment. The design of three printing technologies is
dependent on material properties and the corresponding mechanisms.
Over the decades, research has established the fact that the ascertain
high quality of material manufacture 3D printing process needs uplift
holistically.
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APPENDIX 1
Table 1 Comparison of various printing techniques on the basis of material, size, support and layer thickness
Technology Material Support Size Layer thickness
Stereolithography (SLA) Photopolymers (Acrylate) Required
7.9  7.9  9.8”
10  10  10”
20  20  24”
0.004-0.03”
Photo-Masking Photopolymers (Acrylate) Not required 20  20  14” 0.004-0.006”
Fused deposition modeling Wax-Filled plastic adhesive May required 12  12  12” 0.01-0.25”
Laminated object manufacturing
(LOM)
Any sheet of material
(Metal, Paper, Fibers, Plastic, Composites)
Required 12  2  12” 0.0035”
Direct metal sintering (DMLS) Metal powder Required 10  10  13” 0.0008”
Electron beam melting (EBM) Metal powder Required 14  14  15” 0.002”
Selective heat sintering(SHS) Nylon composite Not required 6  6  6” 0.004”
Selective laser sintering (SLS) Polyamide powder Not required 10  8  13” 0.004”

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