This document provides an overview of qualitative and quantitative research approaches and methods. It discusses the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research, including their scientific methods, research objectives, focus, nature of study, form of data collected, data analysis, and results. Specific qualitative methods like ethnography, case study, and historical research are described. Key quantitative methods such as experimental, quasi-experimental, survey, and correlational research are also outlined. Examples and purposes of each method are provided. The document concludes with a table comparing the main characteristics of qualitative and quantitative approaches.

1. TSL 3113
Action Research 1
T0PIC 2:
An Introduction to Research Methods in
Education
MUNIRAHBT HASHIM
N0RAIN BT ABDUL MANAF
AL SAMIHAHAMNI BT D0LLAH@ABD.AZIZ

2. Content:
 Qualitative
– Ethnography
– Case study
– Historical
 Quantitative
– Experimental
– Quasi-experimental
– Survey
– Correlational

3. Approaches
in
Research

5. Qualitative approach:
• The approach usually associated with the social constructivist
paradigm which emphasises the socially constructed nature of
reality.
• It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the
deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and
experience, including contradictory beliefs,
behaviours and emotions.

6. Qualitative approach:
• It can describe events, persons and so forth scientifically
without the use of numerical data.
• It is harder, more stressful and more time-consuming than
other types.

7. Qualitative approach:
• Concerned with collecting and analysing information in as
many forms.
• Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are
not in the form of numbers. (Punch, 1998: 4)

8. Qualitative approach:
• Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is
`lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...
• Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding
experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or
live it.
Ely et al (Sherman and Webb ,1988)
• Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is
`lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...
• Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding
experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or
live it.
Ely et al (Sherman and Webb ,1988)

9. Ethnography
• The study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within
groups, teams, organisations, and communities.
• The central aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s
views and actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights, sounds) of the location
they inhabit, through the collection of detailed observations and interviews.
The key features of ethnographic research.
Space—Physical layout of the place(s)
Actor—Range of people involved
Activity—A set of related activities that occur
Object—The physical things that are present
Act—Single actions people undertake
Event—Activities that people carry out
Time—The sequencing of events that occur
Goal—Things that people are trying to accomplish
Feeling—Emotions felt and expressed

10. Nine observational dimensions
Space— Physical layout of the place(s)
Actor— Range of people involved
Activity— A set of related activities that occur
Object— The physical things that are present
Act— Single actions people undertake
Event— Activities that people carry out
Time— The sequencing of events that occur
Goal— Things that people are trying to accomplish
Feeling— Emotions felt and expressed

11. Ethnography
Purpose - to describe a culture's characteristics
Method
•Identify culture, variables for study, & review literature
•Data collection - gain entrance to culture; immerse self in culture;
acquire informants; gather data through direct observation &
interaction with subjects
Analysis - describe characteristics of culture
Outcomes - description of culture

12. Case study
• The in depth analysis of a single or small number of units
• A case study unit may include a single person, a group of people, an organisation or an institution
• Case study research ranges in its complexity:
– From a simple, illustrative description of a single event or occurrence
– To a more complex analysis of a social situation over a period of time
– To the most complex approach which is an extended case study which traces events involving the same actors over a period of time -
enabling the analysis reflect changes and adjustments
• Case studies aims to:
– Offer a richness and depth of information by capturing as many variables as possible to identify how a complex set of circumstances come
together to produce a particular manifestation '...to as identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce a particular
manifestation.'
• Case study as a method is very versatile, as it uses many methods of gather information, from observation to interview to testing
• One of the criticisms of the case study method is that the case under study may not be representative of a wider social setting and therefore it is
argued that the results of the research cannot be used to make generalisations
• Therefore, the purpose of case study research is to describe that particular case in detail and take learning from that and develop theory from that
approach - it is particularlistic and contextual

13. The qualitative methods described below are all likely to be used in case study research.
•Participant Observation. This involves the researcher immersing him or herself in the daily lives and routines of those being
studied. This often requires extensive work in the setting being studied. This is called fieldwork. Observation provides insight
into the behavior patterns and social organizations that operate and constitute a particular bounded system or case.
•Interviewing. Researchers will learn about the person or persons that are part of the case by speaking with these
people. Talking with informants is called interviewing. The types of interviews conducted by researchers vary in degree
of formality (informal interview to semi-structured to structured interviews).
•Collection of Artifacts and Texts. Researchers may also learn about a bounded system by collecting and studying artifacts (e.g.
written protocols, charts, flowsheets, educational handouts) - materials used by members of the system or case being studied.

14. Case study
Purpose - describe in-depth the experience of one
person, family, group, community, or institution
Method
•Direct observation and interaction with subject
Analysis - synthesis of experience
Outcomes - in-depth description of the experience

15. Historical
'The systematic collection and objective
evaluation of data related to past occurrences in
order to test hypotheses concerning causes,
effects or trends of these events that may help
to explain present events and anticipate future
events' (Gay, 1996)Historical
Purpose - describe and examine events of
the past to understand the present and
anticipate potential future effects
Method
•Formulate idea - select topic after
reading related literature
•Develop research questions
•Develop an inventory of sources -
archives, private libraries, papers

16. Quantitative approach:
• Involves collecting and converting data into numerical form
so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions
drawn.
• Quantitative approaches have been seen as more scientific and
`objective'.

17. Quantitative approach:
• Quantitative research consists of those studies in which the data
concerned can be analysed in terms of numbers.
• Quantitative research is based more directly on its original plans
and its results are more readily analysed and interpreted.

18. Quantitative approach:
• Concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric
form. It tends to emphasize relatively large-scale and representative
sets of data, and is often, falsely in our view, presented or perceived
as being about the gathering of `facts'.
• Quantitative research is empirical research where
the data are in the form of numbers.

19. Quantitative research
– Experimental
– Quasi-experimental
– Survey
– Correlational

20. Experimental
• Studies that make use of both experimental
approaches and statistical analyses of
quantitative data. This includes comparison of
experimental and control groups, and formal,
systematic measurement of quantities, with
the aim of determining the relationship
between variables.
• Experimental designs are said to be the approach for obtaining information about
• causal relationships (Robson, 1993), allowing researchers to assess the
• correlation (relationship) between one variable and another. A principle factor of
• such designs is that one element is manipulated by the researcher to see
• whether it has any impact upon another. The element being manipulated by
• researchers (e.g. introducing a teenage pregnancy preventative intervention) is
• known as the independent variable, whereas the change (or outcome) resulting
• from the implementation of the independent variable (e.g. teenage pregnancy
• rates) is the dependent variable.

21. Quasi-experimental
Quasi-experiment refers to studies in which participants are not randomised to
conditions. In this type of design, researchers do not have complete control of
independent variables because the intervention is already in place, or because it
is impossible or ethical to manipulate the variable (e.g. when measuring the
effects of smoking on people’s health, it would be unethical to randomise people
to a smoking or non-smoking group). Researchers rely on existing populations
(e.g. people already smoking versus those who do not smoke). Hence, a control
group is included, but individuals are not randomly allocated to condition; usually
groups are naturally occurring (e.g. people in a part of the country where a new
service has been established compared to individuals in another part of the
country where the service has not been set up).
The problem with such designs is that any differences between two groups are
harder to control for, giving less certainty of the cause and effect relationship. But
for many studies this may be the only design option available. Therefore, it is the
researcher’s task to “tease out the threats to valid inferences about causation
present…and to evaluate how far these threats can be discontinued in a
particular study, taking into account the specific features of the study and the
pattern of results obtained” (Robson, 1993: 46-7).
Examples include
 Pre and Post-test designs
 With comparison group/groups
 Comparison treatments/removal of treatment/
 Post-test only
 With one group/with comparison group
 Interrupted time-series designs
 Simple
 No-treatment comparison group

22. Survey
Surveys are the primary method of quantitative research – research with some claim to statistical accuracy. There are several types of surveys – and several
key considerations within each. This segment will discuss two important factors in surveying – sampling and return rate – and give short descriptions of
survey types – with pros, cons, and cautions. The next segment will discuss questionnaire design.
•Types of Surveys
•There are four basic types of surveys: 1) mail, 2) telephone, 3) online, and 4) in person. In addition, some of these might be self-administered or done by
interviewers. There are also “hybrid” techniques. Each format is the most appropriate in a given circumstance.
•Mail Surveys. Mail surveys are paper and pencil instruments that are mailed to respondents. They are self-administered by the recipient, which means
there is little control over the feedback. However, they are the most convenient for respondents, who can complete them in the place and time of their
choosing. Mail surveys are best for the collection of sensitive information, because they provide anonymity for the respondent. They provide the best
opportunities for both random samples and targeted random samples. They are the least expensive way to collect data from large numbers of people.
•Telephone Surveys. Surveys by telephone might be conducted by trained interviewers or by automated systems. Data collected through telephone
surveys usually has minimal missing or erroneous data, primarily because it offers the opportunity for personal assistance. New automated random dialing
systems increase the “randomness of the sample,” although only people with telephones are included in the sample. Telephone surveys offer a good
opportunity to reach “low incidence” respondents – populations of people that are very small within general population. They also allow for relatively
quick data collection. New IVR (Interactive Voice Response) provides researchers with the opportunity to branch – take respondents to questions based on
previous responses – and otherwise customize the survey.
•Computer/Online Surveys. Surveys can also be administered by computer and the Internet. All provide the potential to conduct complicated research
because “help menus” can assist respondents through the survey. You can also include visual aids or images as part of these surveys. And perhaps most
importantly, they are the least expensive format and have the quickest speed of data collection and reporting. In addition they offer technical advantages,
such as control of order bias, etc. The most convenient type of computer/online survey is the Disk by Mail DBM) survey. These are self-administered, with
respondents pre-recruited. They allow respondents to work at their own pace and to find answers to questions, such as brand names or number of
utensils, as needed. Surveys (CATI) with similar features can be administered by computer – with keyboard, touch screen, electronic pen, or voice-activated
response. Computerized surveys administered from a central location (CASI) offer all the same benefits. The downside of computer/online surveys is the
skewed or limited sampling. Only participants with access to computers outside the work environment can be reasonably be expected to respond. This
sample is further limited by technophobes, who either won’t respond or who have so many problems their data is unusable.
•Hybrid Methods. You can combine any of the methods – and additional technologies – to help you get better, faster, and more responses. The most
common ones are Telephone – Mail – Telephone (TMT), in which you recruit, screen, instruct respondents by phone and then send them a survey. They
can either mail the questionnaire back or call an interviewer. The same method can be used with a fax machine or computer. Online bulletin boards are
another hybrid method. Respondents are recruited, screened, and instructed by phone and then respond online – often to comments by other
respondents as well as survey questions.

23. Correlational
The purpose of correlational research is to determine the relations among two or more variables. Data are gathered from multiple variables and
correlational statistical techniques are then applied to the data. Thus correlational research is a bit more complicated than descriptive research; after the
important variables have been identified, the relations among those variables are investigated. Correlational research investigates a range of factors,
including the nature of the relationship between two or more variables and the theoretical model that might be developed and tested to explain these
resultant correlations. Correlation does not imply causation. Thus correlational research can only enable the researcher to make weak causal inferences at
best.

25. Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach
Scientific method
-Inductive or “bottom up”
-Generate new hypotheses and theory
from data collected.
-Deductive or “top down”
-Test hypothesis and theory with data.
Most common
research objectives
-Description
-Exploration
-Discovery
-Description
-Explanation
-Prediction
Focus
-Wide and deep angle lenses
-Examine the breath and depth of
phenomenon to learn more about
them.
-Narrow-angle lens
-Testing specific hypotheses
Nature of study
- Study behaviour in its natural
environment or context.
- Study behaviour under artificial, controlled
conditions.

26. Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach
Form of data
collected
-Collect narrative data using semi or
unstructured instruments (open-
ended surveys, interviews,
observation, focus groups,
documents)
-Collect numeric data using structured and
validated instruments (close-ended survey
items, rating scales, measurable behaviours)
Nature of data
-Words, images, themes, and
categories
-Numeric variables
Data analysis
-Holistically identify patterns,
categories and themes
-Identify statistical relationships
Results
- Particularistic findings.
-In-depth understanding of
respondent’s viewpoint.
-Respondent framed results
-Generalizable findings.
-General understanding of respondent’s
viewpoint.
-Researcher framed results

27. Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach
Form of final report
-Narrative report including contextual
description, categories, themes, and
supporting respondent quotes.
-Statistical report including correlations,
comparisons of means, and statistically
significant findings.
Adapted from:
Johnson & Christensen. (2004). Educational Research: Quantitative, qualitative
and mixes approaches, 2nd
ed. Boston: Ally: Bacon.

28. QUESTION
AND ANSWER
SESSION

29. Questions:
1. Why is it important for teachers to do
educational research?
2. What must we do to avoid plagiarism in writing
a research article?
3. What is research ethics and why is it important?
4. What are the importance of informed consent?
5. Why action research is regarded as an
interactive process?

30. references

31. David Coghlan & Teresa Brannick. (2005: 11-13). Doing Action Research In
Your Own Words. London: SAGE Publications.
Glenda Nugent, et al. (2012: 4). A Practical Guide to Action Research for
Literacy Educators. Washington: Global Operations Unit.
University of Minnesota. (2003: 8-35). A Guide to Research Ethics.
University of Minnesota: Center for Bioethics.
Alzheimer Europe. (n.d). The Four Main Approaches. Assessed on 2013,
23rd
December, at http://www.alzheimer
europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-of
research/The-four-main-approaches
Christina Hughes. (n.d). Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Social
Research. Assessed on 2013, 23rd
December, at
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/academicstaff/chu
ghes/hughesc_index/teachingresearchprocess/quantitativequalitativ
e/quantitativequalitative/

32. THANK
YOU…