1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON PRODUCTIVE SECTORS AND IN CITIES
AND HOW TO MITIGATE THEM
Fernando Alcoforado 
Abstract - This article aims to show the environmental negative impacts in the
agriculture and livestock, industrial and oil sectors, in thermoelectric, hydroelectric and
nuclear power plants, in the road, rail, aviation, waterways, maritime and pipeline
transport and cities, as well as present what should be done to mitigate them.
Keywords - Environmental Impacts on Productive Sectors and Cities. How to Mitigate
Environmental Impacts.
1. Introduction
Any environmental impact is considered environmental degradation to a greater or
lesser degree resulting from human activity. These environmental impacts occur: 1) in
the agricultural sector, 2) in the industrial sector, 3) in the oil sector; 4) in thermoelectric
power plants; 5) in hydro power plants; 6) in nuclear power plants; 7) in the transport
sector (road, rail, aviation, water transport, maritime and pipeline); and, 8) in cities. The
environmental impacts of each of the productive sectors and the cities and how to
mitigate them are presented in the following chapters.
2. Environmental impacts of the agricultural sector
The agricultural activity generates several environmental impacts: 1) soil erosion, 2)
desertification; 3) silting of watercourses; 4) contamination of soil and water by
pesticides, fertilizers, veterinary drugs, detergents and oils, agricultural waste and other
organic wastes and pathogenic micro-organisms; 5) monoculture; 6) reduction of
biodiversity; 7) cultivation of genetically modified organisms; 8) decrease of native
vegetation; 9) deforestation; 10) burned and CO2 emissions, 11 ) overcrowding and
degradation of pastures; 12) methane emissions from livestock. The environmental
impacts of agricultural activities can be eliminated or minimized by adopting
environmentally sound governmental policies and enforcement measures and
punishment of those responsible for noncompliance. Some waste can be reused or
recycled through reverse logistics.
3. Environmental impacts of the industrial sector
It is very diverse industrial production process which generates wide variety of solid,
liquid and gas waste. Different are the industries and also the processes that they use
and the resulting waste. The release of waste of industry for the environment may cause
pollution of air, water and soil. In Brazil, the industry has been reducing air pollution,
but the improper disposal and illegal clandestine sites has caused considerable pollution
of soil and water contaminating surface and ground water. The environmental impacts
of industrial activity can be eliminated or minimized by adopting environmentally
sound governmental policies and enforcement measures and punishment of those
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2. responsible for noncompliance. Some waste can be reused or recycled through reverse
logistics.
4. Environmental impacts of the oil sector
The oil sector accounts for 75% of carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere, 41% lead,
85% of sulfur emissions and about 76% of nitrogen oxides. The consumption of
petroleum products by the transportation sector (cars and trucks) is the one with the
largest contribution to the degradation of the environment locally and globally. It is
estimated that 50% of the hydrocarbons emitted in urban areas and approximately 25%
of total emissions of all carbon dioxide generated in the world, result from activities
with transportation systems. One of the more complex and larger effects of emissions
from the oil sector are global problems related to climate change. The accumulation of
gases such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, accentuates the natural greenhouse
effect on the Earth's ecosystem to the point of breaking the weather patterns that affect
human life, animal, fish, agriculture, vegetation, etc. The environmental impacts of the
oil sector can be eliminated or minimized by replacing oil and its derivatives by
renewable energy sources (solar, wind and biomass).
5. Environmental impacts of thermoelectric power plants
The production of electricity in thermoelectric power plants worldwide represents about
one third of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, followed by emissions from the
transport sector and industrial. The main fuel used in the world are coal, petroleum and
increasingly natural gas. There are other types of power plants that burn waste biomass
(firewood, bagasse) and even municipal waste. It is also worth noting that there has
been a lot of progress with respect to increasing the efficiency of power plants by
introduction of cogeneration technologies and gas turbines. Chances gasification of
coal, wood and agricultural waste plants offer new opportunities for more efficient and
with less impact on the environment than conventional sources of energy. The
environmental impacts of thermoelectric power plants can be eliminated or minimized
with the replacement of fossil fuels by biomass and hydroelectric power plants and
thermoelectric power plants by wind power.
6. Environmental impacts of hydroelectric power plants
Often is referred to as a hydroelectric power source as "clean" and low environmental
impact. Although the construction of reservoirs, large or small, has brought enormous
benefits to Brazil, helping to regulate floods, irrigation and promote navigability of
rivers, they also bring irreversible impacts to the environment. This is especially true of
large reservoirs. There are problems with changes in composition and chemical
properties of water, changes in temperature, sediment concentration, and other
modifications which cause problems for maintaining ecosystems downstream of major
reservoirs. These projects, however well controlled, have had impacts on the
maintenance of species diversity (fauna and flora) and affected the density of fish
populations, changing breeding cycles. The dams in the Amazon may also contribute to
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3. the destruction of the forest, besides affecting indigenous peoples. The environmental
impacts of hydropower plants can be eliminated or minimized with the implementation
of hydroelectric plants of small and medium size besides the use of renewable energy
(solar, wind and biomass) for electricity generation.
7. Environmental impacts of nuclear power plants
Nuclear power plant is one that has drawn more attention as to their impact on the
environment and human health. There are three main environmental problems of this
energy source. The first is the handling of radioactive material in the production of
nuclear fuel and in nuclear reactors, with risks of spills and accidents. The second
problem relates to the possibility of illegal diversion of material for use in nuclear
weapons, for example, enhancing the risk of proliferation. Finally, there is the serious
problem of storing radioactive waste from power plants. There has already been
substantial progress in the development of technologies that reduce the risk of
radioactive contamination by accident with nuclear reactors, greatly increasing the
security level of this type of plant, but have not yet satisfactory and acceptable solutions
to the problem of nuclear waste. The environmental impacts of nuclear power plants can
be eliminated by replacing them with hydroelectric, wind and thermal power plants
using biomass.
8. Environmental impacts of the transport sector
There are six modes of transportation: 1) Road, 2) Rail, 3) Airway; 4) Waterways; 5)
Maritime; 6) Pipeline. Worldwide, the transport sector is responsible for 23% of global
emissions of greenhouse gases. Emissions from the transport sector have increased
more than other sectors related to energy consumption, with cargo transport increasing
more than the passenger. 90% of goods are transported by the oceans. The shipping
contributes less than 10% of greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector.
Environmental impacts of roads: 1) large polluting effect of gases released from the
tailpipes of cars and trucks, 2) withdrawal and transfer of huge amounts of land, 3)
deforestation; 4) changes in the form of runoff, 5) siltation of rivers, 6) build bridges for
crossing biomes; 7) urban sprawl. The environmental impacts of highways can be
minimized by making vehicles more efficient, the replacement of gasoline and diesel by
alcohol, vegetable diesel and hydrogen in vehicles, tracing highway projects less
harmful to the environment and deployment more scale of railroads and waterways
where possible.
Environmental impacts of railroads: 1) clearing of areas, 2) removal of soil for leveling
the rails, 3) changes in the form of runoff; 4) devastation of areas already benefit for
agriculture and livestock, 5) construction of bridges crossing biomes. The
environmental impacts of railways can be minimized by making more efficient
locomotives moved to electricity, fossil fuels and hydrogen, tracing rail projects less
harmful to the environment and deployment on a larger scale of waterways where
possible.
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4. Environmental impacts of air transport: 1) the environmental impact of aviation occurs
because aircraft engines emit noise, particulates and gases that contribute to climate
change, 2) the aviation industry also contributes to emissions from vehicles and those
internal to airports used by passengers and employees are directed to them, as well as
the emissions generated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the
manufacture of aircraft and airport infrastructure construction, 3) the airline industry
accounts for about 2% of emissions carbon dioxide in the world, with this number
expected to grow to 3% by 2050; 4) emissions of greenhouse gases from aviation
increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. The environmental impacts of aircraft can be
minimized with the development of aircraft design more efficient fossil fuel, alcohol
and hydrogen, more efficient vehicles powered by fossil fuels, ethanol and hydrogen for
use in airports and by passengers in their movements and airport infrastructure projects
away from urban areas and using renewable energy.
Environmental impacts of water transportation: 1) risk of injury to the vessel, 2) the
transport of dangerous goods; 3) spillage of fuels (petroleum products and alcohol) and
chemical loads in waterways causing major environmental impacts and immeasurable
damage to ecosystems in the catchment area of the spill, and endanger human health by
contaminating soil and water. The environmental impacts of waterways can be
minimized by making vessels more efficient that use fossil fuel and hydrogen.
Environmental impacts of maritime transportation: 1) risk of injury to the vessel, 2) the
transport of dangerous goods; 3) spillage of fuels and chemical loads; 3) shedding
ballast water, 4) oil spill and oily water; 5) sewage spill; 6) spill greywater; 7) solid
waste; 8) engine emissions (CO2, NOx, SO2 and particulate matter). The environmental
impacts of shipping can be minimized by making vessels more efficient that use fossil
fuel and hydrogen.
Environmental impacts of the pipeline transportation: 1) ground movement caused by
the completion of cut and fill, 2) removal of vegetation, installation of construction
sites, excavation of trenches, cuts and construction of embankments, landslides, 3)
generation of various waste; 4) interference on the remaining forests; 5) interference on
wildlife; 6) siltation of water bodies; 7) intensification of erosion processes; 8) potential
increase of geotechnical risk; 9) change in land use due to use restrictions of bands
ducts; 10) interference on hydraulic infrastructure, energy and roads; 11) interference on
the flow of municipal road areas of influence. Pipelines allow the transport of 1) oil and
its derivatives (oil), 2) natural gas (pipelines), 3) ore, cement and cereals (pipelines or
polyducts), 4) coal and solid waste (mineral products); 5) wastewater - sewage
(wastewater pipelines), 6) drinking water (water pipe). The environmental impacts of
pipelines can be minimized with the development of project pipelines routes less
harmful to the environment.
9. Environmental impacts in cities
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5. Environmental impacts in cities: 1) noise pollution, 2) visual pollution, 3) air pollution;
4) deforestation; 5) collection, treatment and disposal of urban waste; 6) excessive
consumption and waste water; 7) pollution water sources for domestic and industrial
waste; 8) frequent congestion of vehicles; 9) disorderly occupation of urban land; 10)
verticality of buildings. The environmental impacts in cities can be eliminated or
minimized with the adoption of effective public policies to eliminate the 10
environmental impacts described above, as well as urban planning based on the
principles of sustainable cities that presupposes the rational reorganization of space,
elimination of diseconomies of agglomeration, obtaining energy savings in buildings,
industries and transportation in general and higher yield in automotive vehicles and
equipment home and industrial uses, the replacement of gasoline and diesel by alcohol,
vegetable diesel and hydrogen in vehicles automotive, obtaining economy of lighting,
heating and cooling in buildings, the modeling industry in the sense of requiring the
least energy resources and raw materials, including for self-generation using waste from
their production processes, the use of new transportation alternatives from the bike to
those based on high capacity railways, among other initiatives, the combat to pollution
of land, air and water in cities, waste reduction through recycling of materials currently
used and discarded and the reduction of social inequalities.
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* Alcoforado, Fernando, engineer and doctor of Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the
University of Barcelona, a university professor and consultant in strategic planning, business planning,
regional planning and planning of energy systems, is the author of Globalização (Editora Nobel, São
Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo,
1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do
desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,
http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel,
São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era
Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social
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6. Development-The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Muller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG,
Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (P&A Gráfica e Editora,
Salvador, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global
(Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011) and Os Fatores Condicionantes do
Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), among others.
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