Martin Luther, a lawyer turned monk, nailed the 95 Theses disputing church abuses to a church door in 1517, sparking the Protestant Reformation. He translated the New Testament to German and was excommunicated in 1521 for his teachings on justification by faith alone. John Calvin formed conservative Calvinism in Switzerland, while Henry VIII established the Church of England after separating from the Catholic Church to divorce his wife. The Council of Trent reaffirmed Catholicism in response and established seminaries for clergy as the divisions between Protestant and Catholic spread across Europe.