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Biology in Focus - Chapter 8
1.
CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN
FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 8 Photosynthesis
2.
Overview: The Process
That Feeds the Biosphere Photosynthesis is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes almost the entire living world © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.
Autotrophs sustain
themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere, producing organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic molecules Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, using the energy of sunlight to make organic molecules © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
4.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.1
5.
Heterotrophs obtain
their organic material from other organisms Heterotrophs are the consumers of the biosphere Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, depend on photoautotrophs for food and O2 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
6.
Photosynthesis occurs
in plants, algae, certain other protists, and some prokaryotes These organisms feed not only themselves but also most of the living world © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
7.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.2 (a) Plants (d) Cyanobacteria (e) Purple sulfur bacteria (b) Multicellular alga (c) Unicellular eukaryotes 10µm 1µm40µm
8.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.2a (a) Plants
9.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.2b (b) Multicellular alga
10.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.2c (c) Unicellular eukaryotes 10µm
11.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.2d (d) Cyanobacteria 40µm
12.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.2e (e) Purple sulfur bacteria 1µm
13.
Concept 8.1: Photosynthesis
converts light energy to the chemical energy of food The structural organization of photosynthetic cells includes enzymes and other molecules grouped together in a membrane This organization allows for the chemical reactions of photosynthesis to proceed efficiently Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and likely evolved from photosynthetic bacteria © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
14.
Chloroplasts: The Sites
of Photosynthesis in Plants Leaves are the major locations of photosynthesis Their green color is from chlorophyll, the green pigment within chloroplasts Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf Each mesophyll cell contains 30–40 chloroplasts © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
15.
CO2 enters
and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called stomata The chlorophyll is in the membranes of thylakoids (connected sacs in the chloroplast); thylakoids may be stacked in columns called grana Chloroplasts also contain stroma, a dense interior fluid © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
16.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.3 Leaf cross section 20 µm Mesophyll Stomata Chloroplasts Vein CO2 O2 Mesophyll cell Chloroplast Stroma Thylakoid Thylakoid space Outer membrane Intermembrane space Inner membrane Granum 1 µm
17.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.3a Leaf cross section Mesophyll Stomata Chloroplasts Vein CO2 O2
18.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.3b 20 µm Mesophyll cell Chloroplast Stroma Thylakoid Thylakoid space Outer membrane Intermembrane space Inner membrane Granum 1 µm
19.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.3c 20 µm Mesophyll cell
20.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.3d Stroma Granum 1 µm
21.
Tracking Atoms Through
Photosynthesis: Scientific Inquiry Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that can be summarized as the following equation 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
22.
The Splitting of
Water Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar molecules and releasing oxygen as a by-product © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
23.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.4 Products: Reactants: 6 CO2 6 O2C6H12O6 6 H2O 12 H2O
24.
Photosynthesis as a
Redox Process Photosynthesis reverses the direction of electron flow compared to respiration Photosynthesis is a redox process in which H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced Photosynthesis is an endergonic process; the energy boost is provided by light © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
25.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN01 becomes reduced becomes oxidized
26.
The Two Stages
of Photosynthesis: A Preview Photosynthesis consists of the light reactions (the photo part) and Calvin cycle (the synthesis part) The light reactions (in the thylakoids) Split H2O Release O2 Reduce the electron acceptor, NADP+ , to NADPH Generate ATP from ADP by adding a phosphate group, photophosphorylation © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
27.
The Calvin
cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar from CO2, using ATP and NADPH The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic molecules © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Photosynthesis
28.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.5 Light CO2H2O P i Chloroplast Light Reactions Calvin Cycle [CH2O] (sugar) O2 ADP ATP NADP+ + NADPH
29.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.5-1 Light H2O Chloroplast Light Reactions P i ADP NADP+ +
30.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.5-2 Light H2O P i Chloroplast Light Reactions O2 ADP ATP NADP+ + NADPH
31.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.5-3 Light CO2H2O P i Chloroplast Light Reactions Calvin Cycle O2 ADP ATP NADP+ + NADPH
32.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.5-4 Light CO2H2O P i Chloroplast Light Reactions Calvin Cycle [CH2O] (sugar) O2 ADP ATP NADP+ + NADPH
33.
Concept 8.2: The
light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical factories Their thylakoids transform light energy into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
34.
The Nature of
Sunlight Light is a form of electromagnetic energy, also called electromagnetic radiation Like other electromagnetic energy, light travels in rhythmic waves Wavelength is the distance between crests of waves Wavelength determines the type of electromagnetic energy © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
35.
The electromagnetic
spectrum is the entire range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation Visible light consists of wavelengths (including those that drive photosynthesis) that produce colors we can see Light also behaves as though it consists of discrete particles, called photons © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
36.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.6 Gamma rays 10−5 nm 10−3 nm 1 nm 103 nm 106 nm 1 m (109 nm) 103 m Radio waves Micro- wavesX-rays InfraredUV Visible light Shorter wavelength Longer wavelength Lower energyHigher energy 380 450 500 550 650600 700 750 nm
37.
Photosynthetic Pigments: The
Light Receptors Pigments are substances that absorb visible light Different pigments absorb different wavelengths Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected or transmitted Leaves appear green because chlorophyll reflects and transmits green light © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Light and Pigments
38.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.7 Reflected light Light Absorbed light Chloroplast Granum Transmitted light
39.
A spectrophotometer
measures a pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths This machine sends light through pigments and measures the fraction of light transmitted at each wavelength © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
40.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.8 Refracting prism White light Green light Blue light Chlorophyll solution Photoelectric tube Galvanometer Slit moves to pass light of selected wavelength. The low transmittance (high absorption) reading indicates that chlorophyll absorbs most blue light. The high transmittance (low absorption) reading indicates that chlorophyll absorbs very little green light. Technique 1 2 4 3
41.
An absorption
spectrum is a graph plotting a pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a suggests that violet-blue and red light work best for photosynthesis Accessory pigments include chlorophyll b and a group of pigments called carotenoids An action spectrum profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a process © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
42.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 Chloro- phyll a Rateof photosynthesis (measuredbyO2 release) Results Absorptionoflight bychloroplast pigments Chlorophyll b Carotenoids Filament of alga Aerobic bacteria (a) Absorption spectra (b) Action spectrum (c) Engelmann’s experiment 400 700600500 400 700600500 400 700600500 Wavelength of light (nm)
43.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.9a Chloro- phyll a Absorptionoflight bychloroplast pigments Chlorophyll b Carotenoids (a) Absorption spectra 400 700600500 Wavelength of light (nm)
44.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.9b (b) Action spectrum 400 700600500 Rateof photosynthesis (measuredbyO2 release)
45.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.9c Filament of alga Aerobic bacteria (c) Engelmann’s experiment 400 700600500
46.
The action
spectrum of photosynthesis was first demonstrated in 1883 by Theodor W. Engelmann In his experiment, he exposed different segments of a filamentous alga to different wavelengths Areas receiving wavelengths favorable to photosynthesis produced excess O2 He used the growth of aerobic bacteria clustered along the alga as a measure of O2 production © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
47.
Chlorophyll a
is the main photosynthetic pigment Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll b, broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis A slight structural difference between chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b causes them to absorb slightly different wavelengths Accessory pigments called carotenoids absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Chlorophyll Model
48.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.10 Hydrocarbon tail: interacts with hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts; H atoms not shown Porphyrin ring: light-absorbing “head” of molecule; note magnesium atom at center CH3 in chlorophyll a CHO in chlorophyll b CH3
49.
Excitation of Chlorophyll
by Light When a pigment absorbs light, it goes from a ground state to an excited state, which is unstable When excited electrons fall back to the ground state, photons are given off, an afterglow called fluorescence If illuminated, an isolated solution of chlorophyll will fluoresce, giving off light and heat © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
50.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.11 Photon (fluorescence) Ground state (b) Fluorescence Excited state Chlorophyll molecule Photon Heat e− (a) Excitation of isolated chlorophyll molecule Energyofelectron
51.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.11a (b) Fluorescence
52.
A Photosystem: A
Reaction-Center Complex Associated with Light-Harvesting Complexes A photosystem consists of a reaction-center complex (a type of protein complex) surrounded by light-harvesting complexes The light-harvesting complexes (pigment molecules bound to proteins) transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
53.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.12 (b) Structure of a photosystem(a) How a photosystem harvests light Chlorophyll STROMA THYLAKOID SPACE Protein subunits STROMA THYLAKOID SPACE (INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID) Photosystem Photon Light- harvesting complexes Reaction- center complex Primary electron acceptor Special pair of chlorophyll a molecules Transfer of energy Pigment molecules Thylakoidmembrane Thylakoidmembrane e−
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.12a (a) How a photosystem harvests light STROMA THYLAKOID SPACE (INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID) Photosystem Photon Light- harvesting complexes Reaction- center complex Primary electron acceptor Special pair of chlorophyll a molecules Transfer of energy Pigment molecules Thylakoidmembrane e−
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.12b (b) Structure of a photosystem Chlorophyll STROMA THYLAKOID SPACE Protein subunits Thylakoidmembrane
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A primary
electron acceptor in the reaction center accepts excited electrons and is reduced as a result Solar-powered transfer of an electron from a chlorophyll a molecule to the primary electron acceptor is the first step of the light reactions © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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There are
two types of photosystems in the thylakoid membrane Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II is called P680 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Photosystem I
(PS I) is best at absorbing a wavelength of 700 nm The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is called P700 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Linear Electron Flow
Linear electron flow involves the flow of electrons through both photosystems to produce ATP and NADPH using light energy © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Linear electron
flow can be broken down into a series of steps 1. A photon hits a pigment and its energy is passed among pigment molecules until it excites P680 2. An excited electron from P680 is transferred to the primary electron acceptor (we now call it P680+ ) 3. H2O is split by enzymes, and the electrons are transferred from the hydrogen atoms to P680+ , thus reducing it to P680; O2 is released as a by-product © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN02 Calvin Cycle NADPH NADP+ ATP ADP Light CO2 [CH2O] (sugar) Light Reactions O2 H2O
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-1 Primary acceptor Photosystem II (PS II) Light P680 Pigment molecules 1 2e−
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-2 Primary acceptor 2 H+ O2 + Photosystem II (PS II) H2O Light /2 1 P680 Pigment molecules 1 2 3 e− e− e−
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-3 Primary acceptor 2 H+ O2 + ATP Photosystem II (PS II) H2O Light /2 1 P680 Pq Electron transport chain Cytochrome complex Pc Pigment molecules 1 2 3 4 5 e− e− e−
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-4 Primary acceptor 2 H+ O2 + ATP Photosystem II (PS II) H2O Light /2 1 P680 Pq Electron transport chain Cytochrome complex Pc Pigment molecules Primary acceptor Photosystem I (PS I) P700 Light 1 2 3 4 5 6 e− e− e− e−
66.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-5 Primary acceptor 2 H+ O2 + ATP NADPH Photosystem II (PS II) H2O e− e− e− Light /2 1 P680 Pq Electron transport chain Cytochrome complex Pc Pigment molecules Primary acceptor Photosystem I (PS I) e− P700 e− e− Fd Light Electron transport chain H+ + NADP+ NADP+ reductase 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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4. Each electron
“falls” down an electron transport chain from the primary electron acceptor of PS II to PS I 5. Energy released by the fall drives the creation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane; diffusion of H+ (protons) across the membrane drives ATP synthesis © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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6. In PS
I (like PS II), transferred light energy excites P700, causing it to lose an electron to an electron acceptor (we now call it P700+ ) P700+ accepts an electron passed down from PS II via the electron transport chain © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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7. Excited electrons
“fall” down an electron transport chain from the primary electron acceptor of PS I to the protein ferredoxin (Fd) 8. The electrons are transferred to NADP+ , reducing it to NADPH, and become available for the reactions of the Calvin cycle This process also removes an H+ from the stroma © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The energy
changes of electrons during linear flow can be represented in a mechanical analogy © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.14 Photosystem II Photosystem I NADPH Mill makes ATP Photon Photon
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A Comparison of
Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by chemiosmosis but use different sources of energy Mitochondria transfer chemical energy from food to ATP; chloroplasts transform light energy into the chemical energy of ATP Spatial organization of chemiosmosis differs between chloroplasts and mitochondria but also shows similarities © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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In mitochondria,
protons are pumped to the intermembrane space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix In chloroplasts, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the stroma © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.15 Electron transport chain Higher [H+ ] P i H+ CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURE Inter- membrane space MITOCHONDRION STRUCTURE Thylakoid space Inner membrane Matrix Key Lower [H+ ] Thylakoid membrane Stroma ATP ATP synthase ADP + H+ Diffusion
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.15a Electron transport chain Higher [H+ ] H+ CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURE Inter- membrane space MITOCHONDRION STRUCTURE Thylakoid space Inner membrane Matrix Key Lower [H+ ] Thylakoid membrane Stroma ATP ATP synthase ADP + H+ Diffusion P i
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ATP and
NADPH are produced on the side facing the stroma, where the Calvin cycle takes place In summary, light reactions generate ATP and increase the potential energy of electrons by moving them from H2O to NADPH © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN02 Calvin Cycle NADPH NADP+ ATP ADP Light CO2 [CH2O] (sugar) Light Reactions O2 H2O
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.16 Photosystem II Photosystem I To Calvin Cycle H+ THYLAKOID SPACE (high H+ concentration) Thylakoid membrane STROMA (low H+ concentration) ATP synthase NADPH e− Light NADP+ ATP ADP + NADP+ reductase Fd H+ + Pq Pc Cytochrome complex 4 H+ Light +2 H+ O2 H2O /21 4 H+ e− 1 2 3 P i
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.16a Photosystem II Photosystem I H+ THYLAKOID SPACE (high H+ concentration) Thylakoid membrane STROMA (low H+ concentration) ATP synthase e− Light ATP ADP + Fd Pq Pc Cytochrome complex 4 H+ Light +2 H+ O2 H2O /2 1 4 H+ e− 1 2 P i
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.16b 2 3 Photosystem I To Calvin Cycle H+ ATP synthase NADPH Light NADP+ ATP ADP + NADP+ reductase Fd H+ + Pc Cytochrome complex 4 H+ THYLAKOID SPACE (high H+ concentration) STROMA (low H+ concentration) P i
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Concept 8.3: The
Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle, regenerates its starting material after molecules enter and leave the cycle Unlike the citric acid cycle, the Calvin cycle is anabolic It builds sugar from smaller molecules by using ATP and the reducing power of electrons carried by NADPH © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Carbon enters
the cycle as CO2 and leaves as a sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-phospate (G3P) For net synthesis of one G3P, the cycle must take place three times, fixing three molecules of CO2 The Calvin cycle has three phases Carbon fixation Reduction Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Phase 1,
carbon fixation, involves the incorporation of the CO2 molecules into ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) using the enzyme rubisco © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN03 Calvin Cycle NADPH NADP+ ATP ADP Light CO2 [CH2O] (sugar) Light Reactions O2 H2O
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.17-1 Input 3 Calvin Cycle as 3 CO2 Rubisco Phase 1: Carbon fixation RuBP 3-Phosphoglycerate 6 3 3 P P P P P
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.17-2 6 P i NADPH Input 3 ATP Calvin Cycle as 3 CO2 Rubisco Phase 1: Carbon fixation Phase 2: Reduction G3P Output Glucose and other organic compounds G3P RuBP 3-Phosphoglycerate 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate 6 ADP 6 6 6 6 3 6 NADP+ 6 3 1 P P P P P P P P P
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.17-3 6 P i NADPH Input 3 ATP Calvin Cycle as 3 CO2 Rubisco Phase 1: Carbon fixation Phase 2: Reduction Phase 3: Regeneration of RuBP G3P Output Glucose and other organic compounds G3P RuBP 3-Phosphoglycerate 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate 6 ADP 6 6 6 6 P 3 P P P 6 NADP+ 6 P 5 P G3P ATP 3 ADP 3 3 P P 1 P P
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Phase 2,
reduction, involves the reduction and phosphorylation of 3-phosphoglycerate to G3P © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Phase 3,
regeneration, involves the rearrangement of G3P to regenerate the initial CO2 receptor, RuBP © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evolution of Alternative
Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation in Hot, Arid Climates Adaptation to dehydration is a problem for land plants, sometimes requiring trade-offs with other metabolic processes, especially photosynthesis On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which conserves H2O but also limits photosynthesis The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and causes O2 to build up These conditions favor an apparently wasteful process called photorespiration © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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In most
plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of CO2, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon compound (3- phosphoglycerate) In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 instead of CO2 in the Calvin cycle, producing a two-carbon compound Photorespiration decreases photosynthetic output by consuming ATP, O2, and organic fuel and releasing CO2 without producing any ATP or sugar © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Photorespiration may
be an evolutionary relic because rubisco first evolved at a time when the atmosphere had far less O2 and more CO2 Photorespiration limits damaging products of light reactions that build up in the absence of the Calvin cycle © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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C4 plants
minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into a four-carbon compound An enzyme in the mesophyll cells has a high affinity for CO2 and can fix carbon even when CO2 concentrations are low These four-carbon compounds are exported to bundle-sheath cells, where they release CO2 that is then used in the Calvin cycle C4 Plants © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.18 Bundle- sheath cell Sugarcane CO2 Pineapple CO2 (a) Spatial separation of steps C4 CO2 CO2 CAM Day Night Sugar Calvin Cycle Calvin Cycle Sugar Organic acid Organic acid Mesophyll cell (b) Temporal separation of steps 1 2 1 2
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.18a Sugarcane
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.18b Pineapple
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.18c Bundle- sheath cell CO2 CO2 (a) Spatial separation of steps C4 CO2 CO2 CAM Day Night Sugar Calvin Cycle Calvin Cycle Sugar Organic acid Organic acid Mesophyll cell (b) Temporal separation of steps 1 2 1 2
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CAM Plants Some
plants, including succulents, use crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix carbon CAM plants open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in the Calvin cycle © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Importance of
Photosynthesis: A Review The energy entering chloroplasts as sunlight gets stored as chemical energy in organic compounds Sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies chemical energy and carbon skeletons to synthesize the organic molecules of cells Plants store excess sugar as starch in the chloroplasts and in structures such as roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits In addition to food production, photosynthesis produces the O2 in our atmosphere © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.19 Photosystem II Electron transport chain Calvin Cycle NADPH Light NADP+ ATP CO2 H2O ADP + 3-Phosphpglycerate G3P RuBP Sucrose (export) Starch (storage) Chloroplast O2 Light Reactions: Photosystem I Electron transport chain P i
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN04
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN05 Photosystem II Photosystem I NADP+ ATP Fd H+ +Pq Cytochrome complex O2 H2O Pc NADP+ reductase NADPH Primary acceptor Electron transport chain Primary acceptor Electron transport chain
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN06 Calvin Cycle Regeneration of CO2 acceptor Carbon fixation Reduction 1 G3P (3C) 3 CO2 3 × 5C 6 × 3C 5 × 3C
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN07 pH 7 pH 4 pH 8 pH 4
Notas del editor
Figure 8.1 How can sunlight, seen here as a spectrum of colors in a rainbow, power the synthesis of organic substances?
Figure 8.2 Photoautotrophs
Figure 8.2a Photoautotrophs (part 1: plants)
Figure 8.2b Photoautotrophs (part 2: multicellular alga)
Figure 8.2c Photoautotrophs (part 3: unicellular eukaryotes)
Figure 8.2d Photoautotrophs (part 4: cyanobacteria)
Figure 8.2e Photoautotrophs (part 5: purple sulfur bacteria)
Figure 8.3 Zooming in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant
Figure 8.3a Zooming in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant (part 1: leaf cross section)
Figure 8.3b Zooming in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant (part 2: chloroplast)
Figure 8.3c Zooming in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant (part 3: mesophyll cell, LM)
Figure 8.3d Zooming in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant (part 4: chloroplast, TEM)
Figure 8.4 Tracking atoms through photosynthesis
Figure 8.UN01 In-text figure, photosynthesis equation, p. 158
Figure 8.5 An overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle
Figure 8.5-1 An overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle (step 1)
Figure 8.5-2 An overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle (step 2)
Figure 8.5-3 An overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle (step 3)
Figure 8.5-4 An overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle (step 4)
Figure 8.6 The electromagnetic spectrum
Figure 8.7 Why leaves are green: interaction of light with chloroplasts
Figure 8.8 Research method: determining an absorption spectrum
For the Cell Biology Video Space-Filling Model of Chlorophyll a, go to Animation and Video Files.
Figure 8.9 Inquiry: which wavelengths of light are most effective in driving photosynthesis?
Figure 8.9a Inquiry: which wavelengths of light are most effective in driving photosynthesis? (part 1: absorption spectra)
Figure 8.9b Inquiry: which wavelengths of light are most effective in driving photosynthesis? (part 2: action spectrum)
Figure 8.9c Inquiry: which wavelengths of light are most effective in driving photosynthesis? (part 3: Engelmann’s experiment)
Figure 8.10 Structure of chlorophyll molecules in chloroplasts of plants
Figure 8.11 Excitation of isolated chlorophyll by light
Figure 8.11a Excitation of isolated chlorophyll by light (photo: fluorescence)
Figure 8.12 The structure and function of a photosystem
Figure 8.12a The structure and function of a photosystem (part 1)
Figure 8.12b The structure and function of a photosystem (part 2)
Figure 8.UN02 In-text figure, light reaction schematic, p. 164
Figure 8.13-1 How linear electron flow during the light reactions generates ATP and NADPH (steps 1-2)
Figure 8.13-2 How linear electron flow during the light reactions generates ATP and NADPH (step 3)
Figure 8.13-3 How linear electron flow during the light reactions generates ATP and NADPH (steps 4-5)
Figure 8.13-4 How linear electron flow during the light reactions generates ATP and NADPH (step 6)
Figure 8.13-5 How linear electron flow during the light reactions generates ATP and NADPH (steps 7-8)
Figure 8.14 A mechanical analogy for linear electron flow during the light reactions
Figure 8.15 Comparison of chemiosmosis in mitochondria and chloroplasts
Figure 8.15a Comparison of chemiosmosis in mitochondria and chloroplasts (detail)
Figure 8.UN02 In-text figure, light reaction schematic, p. 164
Figure 8.16 The light reactions and chemiosmosis: the organization of the thylakoid membrane
Figure 8.16a The light reactions and chemiosmosis: the organization of the thylakoid membrane (part 1)
Figure 8.16b The light reactions and chemiosmosis: the organization of the thylakoid membrane (part 2)
Figure 8.UN03 In-text figure, Calvin cycle schematic, p. 168
Figure 8.17-1 The Calvin cycle (step 1)
Figure 8.17-2 The Calvin cycle (step 2)
Figure 8.17-3 The Calvin cycle (step 3)
Figure 8.18 C4 and CAM photosynthesis compared
Figure 8.18a C4 and CAM photosynthesis compared (part 1: C4, sugarcane)
Figure 8.18b C4 and CAM photosynthesis compared (part 2: CAM, pineapple)
Figure 8.18c C4 and CAM photosynthesis compared (part 3: detail)
Figure 8.19 A review of photosynthesis
Figure 8.UN04 Skills exercise: making scatter plots with regression lines
Figure 8.UN05 Summary of key concepts: the light reactions
Figure 8.UN06 Summary of key concepts: the Calvin cycle
Figure 8.UN07 Test your understanding, question 9 (thylakoid experiment)
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