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1. CURRICULUM
Curriculum came from the Latin word ’currere’ which
means a race (meaning to run/to proceed). It is the planned interaction
of learners with instructional content, materials, resources, and processes
for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives.
A curriculum is a “plan or program of all experiences which the learner
encounters under the direction of an educational Institution. It is “the
totality of the experiences of students received from an Institution.
 It outlines the skills, performances, attitudes, and values pupils are
expected to learn from schooling.
 It includes the content of courses (the syllabus), the methods
employed (strategies), and other aspects, like norms and values,
which relate to the way the school is organized.
• It comprises the experiences of the learners.
• It has content.
• It is planned.
• It is a series of courses to be taken by students.
Thus the curriculum is the composite whole including the learner, the
teacher, and teaching and learning methodologies, experiences,
outputs and outcomes possible within a learning institution.
ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM
The curriculum has five elements that are in constant interaction:
 Goals and objectives
 Content or subject matter
 Methods

2.  Learning experiences
 Assessment
HIDDEN CURRICULUM
 Hidden curriculum is the non-academic but educationally
significant component that attitudes of influences the behaviour
and learners
 The word ‘hidden’ implies purposefully hide some learning
experiences from students.
 Since this is not written or officially recognised, its influence on
learning can appear in students’ attitudes and behaviour, both
during and after completing their studies.
 Hidden curriculum as a set of learning states, what is learned as a
result of the practices, procedures, rules, relationships,
structures, and physical characteristics of the school.
 What is acquired or learned from hidden curriculum is usually
remembered longer than information learned at school.
 Positive learning from the hidden curriculum should be identified
and treated as an integral part of the planned and guided
learning experiences.
 Hidden curriculum is often responsible for the values students
may exhibit later in life.
SYLLABUS

3. It is an outline and summary of topics to be covered in a course. It is
descriptive. A syllabus is often either set out by an exam board, or
prepared by the professor who supervises or controls the course quality.
It may be provided in paper form or online. The
word syllabus derives from modern Latin meaning “list", / table of
contents".
Features
Syllabus includes
 objectives of the course
 clear expectations of material to be learned
 clear expectations of behaviour in the classroom
 expectations of student efforts
 grading policy
 listing materials required such as textbooks
 Outside resources for subject material assistance, including
extracurricular books,.
 important dates in course such as exams
 tips for succeeding in mastering course content such as study habits
and expected time allotment
 necessary pre-requisites to current course
CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS
CURRICULUM
 Formulatedby
Philosophy,Psychology and
Sociology
 Formed by the National
level
Committees.(NCFNCERT)
SYLLABUS
 Formed on the basis of
selected content area
 Formed by subject experts
of the State(SCERT)
 Specific Syllabus for each

4.  No special curriculum for
each standard; designed for
levels. primary, secondary,
etc.
 All experiences of the
school
 Transacted by educational
experts of the Country and
state.
 Cannot be evaluated wholly
with tests.
 Very broad
 Syllabus is a component of
the curriculum
class
 Book oriented and
Examination oriented
 Transacted by the teacher in
the classroom
 Examinations are the
evaluation tools
 Specific
 Syllabus is to achieve the
curriculum
PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
The traditional principles of Curriculum Construction are
Child Centeredness, Activity oriented, Community Centeredness,
Future oriented, Process oriented, etc.
As per NCF (2005) the guiding principles are
 Connecting knowledge to life outside the school,
 Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods
 Encourage learners to construct Knowledge.
 Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of
children rather than remain textbook centric,
 Making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom
life
 Addressing disadvantages in education arising from
inequalities of gender, caste, language, culture, religion or
disabilities.

5.  Using curricular principles of moving from "known to the
unknown", from "concrete to abstract", and from "local to
global".
 Applying the concept of critical pedagogy in all dimensions of
school education.
 Making children sensitive to the environment and the need for its
protection.
 Empowering individuals to choose peace as a way of life.
 Imbibing the values enshrined in the Constitution.
1.2 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM ORGANISATION
A. CONCENTRIC APPROACH
In concentric approach, knowledge is widened slowly and steadily.(like
concentric circles) Thus a subject matter is taken and spread over
number of years. In introductory years, elementary knowledge is given,
then in next year little higher level knowledge is added and this is done
in all subsequent years. Thus a steady programme is maintained to
impart knowledge to student.
A Unit is taken. • Then the topic is broken into numbers of sub-

6. themes/topics/Units. •These sub topics/units are allotted in various
classes, according to the difficulty level.
Higher knowledge is provided at higher levels. •At every stage, revision
is done. •Portion is neither too long nor too short. • Elementary
knowledge is given in introductory years
Merits. It is a psychological approach of teaching Science 2) Teacher
can get adequate time to cover the portion. 3) They can go according to
receptivity of learner. 4) Topic is continued for number of years,
memorisation of concepts increases.5) as revision is done, every year,
child retains the knowledge.6) since only small portion of topic is taken,
interest of student is maintained. Teaching does not become dull. 7)
Teacher can make use of different techniques, to introduce and deliver
the content. 8) If same teacher takes topic continuously every year,
he/she knows weak points of students and thus can bring necessary
modifications in topics, to make base of the content strong in students.
Drawbacks 1) If topic is too large, every year, studying the same topic
and seeing same chapter in textbook makes students lose their interest.
2) If topic is too small it will not create any permanent impression on
mind of learners. 3) If topic is not divided properly, into its sub units, it
may prove harmful.
B. SPIRAL APPROACH
SPIRAL CURRICULUM
The theoretical base was given by Bruner. Spiral curriculum is an
approach to education that introduces key concepts to students at a
younger age and covers these concepts repeatedly, with increasing
degrees of complexity. This aims at the gradual nature of
development of knowledge and also the development of learner.

7. The spiral curriculum also allows a logical progression from lower
level to higher level; simplistic ideas to complicated ideas.
The student revisits a topic, theme or subject several times throughout
their school career.
The complexity of the topic or theme increases with each revisit.
New learning has a relationship with old learning and is put in context
with the old information.
The information is reinforced and solidified each time the student
revisits the subject matter.
Students are encouraged to apply the early knowledge to later course
objectives.
.
ROLE OF SCERT IN CURRICULUM
CONSTRUCTION
The 1986-Nationalpolicy on education, recommended the creation of
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) in each
state as a measure of quality education, research and training.
SCERT (Kerala) functions as a Research and Development institute at
the state level by providing guidance, support and assistance to the State

8. Education Department to improve the quality of elementary and
secondary education and teacher education. To achieve this goal, the
SCERT conducts research Studies, develops information systems,
curricular policies, and instructional materials and co-ordinates
in-service education for teachers at all levels.
SCERT is concerned with the academic aspects of school education
including formulation of curriculum, preparation of textbooks, teachers'
handbooks and teacher training. It advises the Government on policy
matters relating to school education
Other Activities are
To undertake, promote the co-ordinate research at different stages of
education.
 To look to the improvement of teacher education and nonformal
education in the country.
 To act as an agent for the advancement of school education.
 To supervise the academic activities in the secondary training
schools, DIETS, colleges of teacher education and institutes of
Advanced study in education.
 To organize pre service and in service training for the teachers,
teacher educators etc.
 To develop and prescribe curriculum for the school education.
 To produce instructional materials for elementary school teachers

9. and for the teacher educators.
 To undertake investigations on different problems of school
education.
KCF 2007
Major Features:
 Social construction of Knowledge for cooperative learning
 Issue based Learning by integrating social issues in classroom
learning
 Critical Pedagogy for promoting critical thinking skills
 Problem Based Learning Approaches
 Development of scientific temperament and its application in
daily life
 Engagement in scientific methods like observation,
experimentation, data collection, interpretation of data, analysis,
theorising, examining for construction of knowledge
 Nurturing the ability to examine scientifically the problems of
daily life as well as social issues and seeking logical solutions
 Recognising and developing one’s own interests and abilities in
technical and vocational fields
 Encouraging the development of logical thinking
 Imbibing a humanistic outlook and developing a world view based
on it
 Recognising the importance of understanding historical
development of ideas
 Nurturing lateral thinking ability for enabling the learners to look
at things from different perspectives and to seek new solutions

10.  Developing scientific literacy that provides for building awareness of
scientific process
NATIONAL LEVEL- NCF (2005, 2009)
At the National level curriculum formulation is done by NCERT
Activities
NCF 2005
The National Curriculum Framework for School Education
(NCFSE)-2000 recommends teaching of science and technology at
upper primary and secondary stage. At the primary stage, science should
form an integral part of environment studies. At secondary and the
senior secondary stage, teaching-learning of science takes a disciplinary
approach as physics, chemistry and biology. The National Curriculum
Framework-2005 recommends hands-on, inquiry-based curriculum.
NCF-2005 also addresses the issues of curriculum load, rote
memorisation and rigid examination system. NCF-2005 suggests
flexible examination system and time schedule, reducing curriculum
load and integration of theory and practical work in teaching-learning of
science.
NCF 2009
The National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) has prepared the
national Curriculum Framework of Teacher Education, which was
circulated in March 2009. The Framework has made several
recommendations on the approach and methodology of in-service
teacher training programmes. This Framework has been prepared in the
background of the NCF, 2005 and the principles laid down in the Right
of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 which
necessitated an altered framework on Teacher Education which would
be consistent with the changed philosophy of school curriculum

11. recommended in the NCF, 2005.
Important dimensions of the new approach to teacher education,.
 Reflective practice to be the central aim of teacher education
 Student-teachers should be provided opportunities for
self-learning, reflection, assimilation and articulation of new ideas;
 Developing capacities for self-directed learning and ability to
think, be critical and to work in groups.
 Providing opportunities to student-teachers to observe and engage
with children, communicate with and relate to children.
Curriculum Transaction
Curriculum Transaction is the effective and desired
implementation of the curriculum contents on the basis of aims and
objectives listed in the curriculum. Curriculum Transaction incorporates
effective planning for providing learning experiences for its learners,
organization of planning, administration/implementation of the
organized planning and evaluation of the implementations by the
implementer and the experts in the relevant field.
Modes of Curricular Transaction
The crux of a teacher education programme is the manner in which
it is implemented. This can be observed in the modes in which the
curriculum is transacted. Modes of curricular transaction pertain to the
channels adopted for providing learning experiences to trainees. These
act as the real 'links' between the expectations placed on a teacher
education programme on the one hand, and on the other, the process of
enabling teacher trainees to absorb the essentials and actualise these

12. expectations. To put it differently, the modes of transaction represent an
operationalisation of the various components of teacher education
programmes.
The mode of training to be adopted for any educational programme has
to be determined on the basis of certain criteria. These include: the
purpose or goals of the programme, the characteristics of the clientele,
the nature of the substance to be transacted, the nature of learning
activities to be provided, the infrastructural arrangements available and
the organisational inputs required. At a deeper level, selection of
training modes involves other factors concerning individuals, the
community, administrative initiative, professional compulsions, market
forces etc. The mode selected has to act as a channel to cater to all
these. This is what makes it a crucial act.
In teacher education, transactional modes have essentially been of two
categories, viz., the face-to-face mode and the distance mode. The
face-to-face mode refers to instructional interactions in which learners
and the teacher transact a curriculum in a face-to-face situation. This
mode includes inputs like seminars, discussions, lectures,
demonstrations and any activity involving direct interaction between the
learners and the teacher. The distance mode, as the term indicates,
pertains to all kinds of interactions between the teacher and learners in
which they are not in direct contact with one another and require a third
channel or medium for contact. These include the print, audio, video,

13. or any other mode. Open learning systems generally utilise such
modes. Due to the indirectness of the contact or the distance between
the teacher and learner, none of these media can by itself suffice for
effective instruction. They are, therefore, used in combination in order
to make experiences more 'realistic' and meaningful. Of late, more
interactive media have been designed and utilised, such as interactive
satellite television or tele-conferencing. The two modes need not be
mutually exclusive.
The face-to-face mode is the oldest and most widely accepted
mode. Obviously, at a time when electronic media were not available
and even the print medium was unknown, the most easily accessible
channel for transmission of knowledge and for communication was
through face-to-face interaction with the teacher. With printing and the
public school system, text books became available and assumed
significance. Over the years, the print medium has provided support to
oral communication with the teacher, as the main focus in
schools. Correspondence education acquired significance as an
alternative to 'teacher talk' in India, with increased availability of
printing facilities. As correspondence education widened with the
emergence of open learning system, the media of transaction were
diversified to include audio, visual and audio-visual mechanisms. More
recently, interactive television has come to be used for communication
of knowledge. The use of media has resulted in new roles for a

14. teacher: that of a designer and developer of these media making them
suitable for instructional purposes, and that of a user of these during
instruction.
The justification for the face-to-face mode seems to be both
conventional and academic. In India, most educational programmes are
provided through this mode. There is a premise that knowledge needs
to be 'imparted' by a teacher. The teacher's role is that of a mediator
between different forms and kinds of knowledge and the somewhat
innocent, unaware (perhaps, ignorant) learner. Without the teacher, the
effectiveness and extent of learning is seen to be
doubtful. Face-to-face interaction provides a learner with an
opportunity to personally experience how a seasoned mind articulates
abstract knowledge, presents it in intelligible forms and clarifies any
difficulties that are experienced in comprehension. He/she gains
confidence by seeing other learners participate in the same process. All
such possibilities help a learner evolve his/her image and recognise
his/her strengths and weaknesses as well as interests and inclinations.
Perhaps, such a view has developed due to the cultural inheritance of the
'guru' concept in India. Even elsewhere, there have been indications in
support of the teacher's direct involvement with the learner for effective
learning. Literature has numerous statements emphasising the need for
the teacher as a role model, as a mentor, and so on. Henry van Dyke's
words reflect such a view very effectively:

15. TYPES OF CURRICULUM AND RECENT TRENDS IN
CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
The term curriculum is derived from the latin word “currere” which
means path. In this sense curriculum is the path through which the
student has to go forward in order to reach the envisaged by education.
Usually the term curriculum is understood to mean a group of subjects
prescribed for study in a particular course. But curriculum is not
confined to this narrow concept. The curriculum should in no way be
considered as synonymous with courses of study. The courses of study
list much of the content to be learnt and indicate some of the major
activities but these form only part of the curriculum. Curriculum should
be considered as a broad based term encompassing every aspect
concerning the study of the course. It in narrow considered on the
totality of experiences to which a pupil is exposed within the boundaries
of the school and outside
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Corresponding to the differences in the nature of various educational
systems there have been variations in the concept and nature of their
curricula too. The modern concept of education is much different from
that of the traditional one. New systems of education have developed in
tune with new philosophical, sociological and psychological principles
and outlooks. In tune with these new types of curricula that would suit

16. the requirements of the new educational system also have emerged.
Some of the major types of curricula are discussed below.
 Traditional or subject centered curriculum: Traditional curriculum
which has been in vogue for a sufficiently long time, is conceived
in terms of subjects of study. Such a curriculum is organized with
the greatest emphasis on knowledge including facts, concepts,
principles, processes and skills in the subject concerned. All stress
was on the cognitive attainment of the learners rather than on their
personal and social development.
 Activity centered curriculum: Comenius suggested that, “whatever
has to be learnt, must be learnt by doing”. Rousseau said, “instead
of making the child stick to his books I keep him busy in the
workshop, where his hands will work to the profit of his mind”.
Pestalozzi declared that, “verbal system of teaching neither suits
the faculties of the child nor the circumstances of life”. All these
led to the activity principle in education which laid the foundation
for activity – centered curriculum. In activity centered curriculum,
subject matter is translated in terms of activities and knowledge is
gained as an outgrowth and product of those activities. Activity is
used as the medium for imparting knowledge, attitudes as well as
skills.
 Child centered curriculum: This is learner oriented. Subjects

17. should be chosen and taught keeping in view of the social,
emotional and intellectual needs of children as well as their
capabilities and developmental status.
 Experience centered curriculum: This lays stress on the experience
which the individual is to get while participating in the process of
learning. Under this pattern, experience of the individual is the
starting point of learning and not the subject matter or the interest
of the individual.
 Undifferentiated curriculum: This means a curriculum which
does not aim at the specilaised study of various subjects.
Specialization should come at the higher secondary and college
levels only. At the primary and secondary stages we should have
differentiated or integrated curriculum. Development of all round
personality is possible only through integrated experience and the
only means of bringing about this integration is the unification of
subjects. Herein differentiated curriculum.
NEW TRENDS IN CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
The changes happening around us play a key role in transforming the
systems of education in particular discipline. Scientific theories,
methods and techniques should be applied in education for its rapid

18. growth. The discipline itself should be revamped in accordance with the
external changes. It’s true in the field of commerce education too. As
the business and industry grow, commerce education also should try to
change to accommodate with this transformation.
Salient features of the new approach
 Learner centered approach in the classroom: Activity based
classrooms where teacher is a facilitator, peer group learning in the
class. Individualized learning by which the speed and depth of
learning are turned to the capabilities of the learner.Instead of
teaching aids learning aids are profusely used. More freedom given
to learners for learning and expression.
 Importance is given to the process of learning rather than to the
product. Text books are so prepared that no readymade answers to
issues are suggested. The content of the text will be open ended.
The way through which the learner has to proceed will be
suggested. Teachers source books are provided adequately.
 Continuous and comprehensive evaluation. Both scholastic and
co-scholastic aspects will be evaluated. Evaluation column in the
lesson plans to be completed during the lesson.
 No average student in the class. Each differs in his intelligence and
learning speed. Multiple intelligence theory accepted instead of the

19. traditional IQ concept.
 Pupils learn and do their activities in basic groups and
instantaneous groups.
 Different strategies like projects, seminars, debates, field trips,
special assignments, club activities are used apart from group
activities inside the class.
 Grading system will be adopted in the term and evaluation
Theoretical bases of the new approach
The new approach has CONSTRUCTIVISM as a major theoretical
backing. This is a clear deviation from behaviorism. It is constructivism
that initiated learner centered approach in education. Constructivism has
two branches, viz, cognitive constructivism and social constructivism.
Constructivism in education
 Emphasizes learning rather than teaching
 Learning considered as a process
 Priority to ‘ How to Learn’ and ‘What to learn’
 Nurtures the learners instinctive curiosity
 Encourages the spirit of enquiry

20.  Mental models of learners taken into consideration
 Accepts the role of exploring and experiencing in learning
 Importance to learning context
 Supports co-operative learning
 Encourages dialogue and communicating among pupils and
teachers
 Encourages learning through life situations
 Strong foundation of cognitive theories
 Performance is given importance in evaluation
 Provides opportunity for the construction of knowledge by learners
 Teachers acts as facilitator, co-learner, diagnostician, democratic
leader and not an information monger.