Inventing argument chap 9

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palderman

Educación Meditación

Inventing Argument Chapter 9 College Comp II

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This presentation synthesizes the academic Objective literature to define critical thinking. My discussion: ● Explores core scholarly principles of critical thinking practices; ● Uses examples to explain the different degrees of support that a scholar may express towards an issue or opinion. This presentation centers on three scenarios where a person may need to show evidence of critical thinking in their scholarly work: ● Writing a college or scholarship application essay; ● Preparing an answer for a test such as the GRE exam; ● Preparing an assessment for a college or university subject.

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WRITING ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS For most people, the true test of their critical thinking skills comes when they write an argumentative essay, one that takes a stand on an issue and uses logic and evidence to convince readers. When you write an argument, you follow the same process you use when you write any essay. However, because the purpose of an argument is to change the way readers think, you need to use some additional strategies to present your ideas to your audience. A) Planning an Argumentative Essay 1) Choosing a Debatable Topic Because an argumentative essay attempts to change the way people think, it must focus on a debatable topic , one about which reasonable people may disagree. Factual statements—verifiable assertions about which reasonable people do not disagree—are, therefore, not suitable as topics for argument. Fact: First-year students are not required to purchase a meal plan from the university. Debatable Topic: First-year students should be required to purchase a meal plan from the university. Your topic should be narrow enough so that you can write about it within your page limit. Remember, in your argumentative essay, you will have to develop your own ideas and present convincing support while also pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of opposing arguments. If your topic is too broad, you will not be able to treat it in enough detail. In addition, your topic should be interesting to you and to your readers. Keep in mind that some topics—such as “The Need for Gun Control” or “The Fairness of the Death Penalty”—have been discussed and written about so often that you may not be able to say anything new or interesting about them. Instead of relying on an overused topic, choose one that enables you to contribute something to the debate. 2) Developing an Argumentative Thesis After you have chosen a topic, your next step is to state your position in an argumentative thesis , one that takes a strong stand. Properly worded, this thesis statement lays the foundation for the rest of your argument. One way to make sure that your thesis statement actually does take a stand is to formulate an antithesis , a statement that takes the opposite position. If you can state an antithesis, your thesis statement takes a stand. Thesis Statement: Term limits would improve government by bringing people with fresh ideas into office every few years. Antithesis: Term limits would harm government because elected officials would always be inexperienced. To make sure your argumentative thesis is effective, ask the following questions: Is your thesis one with which reasonable people would disagree? Can you formulate an antithesis? Can your thesis be supported by evidence? Does your thesis make clear to readers what position you are taking? 3) Defining Your Terms You should always define the key terms you use in your argument— especially those you use in your thesis statement. After all, the soundness of an ...

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1 Finding the Good Argument OR Why Bother With Logic? by Rebecca Jones The word argument often means something negative. In Nina Paley’s cartoon (see Figure 1), the argument is literally a cat fight. Rather than envisioning argument as something productive and useful, we imagine intractable sides and use descriptors such as “bad,” “heated,” and “violent.” We rarely say, “Great, argument. Thanks!” Even when we write an academic “argument paper,” we imagine our own ideas battling others. Figure 1. This cartoon demonstrates the absurdity of either/or arguments. (© 1997-1998 by Nina Paley. Image available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license.) Linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnson explain that the controlling metaphor we use for argument in western culture is war: It is important to see that we don’t just talk about arguments in terms of war. We actually win or lose arguments. We see the person we are arguing with as an opponent. We attack his positions and we defend our own. We gain and lose ground. We plan and use strategies. If we find a position indefensible, we can abandon it and take a new line of attack. Many of the things we do in arguing are partially structured by the concept of war. (4) If we follow the war metaphor along its path, we come across other notions such as, “all’s fair in love and war.” If all’s fair, then the rules, principles, or ethics of an argument are up for grabs. While many warrior metaphors are about honor, the “all’s fair” idea can lead us to arguments that result in propaganda, spin, and, dirty politics. The war metaphor offers many limiting assumptions: there are only two sides, someone must win decisively, and compromise means losing. The metaphor also creates a false opposition where argument (war) is action and its opposite is peace or inaction. Finding better arguments is not about finding peace—the opposite of antagonism. Quite frankly, getting mad can be productive. Ardent peace advocates, such as Jane Addams, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr., offer some of the most compelling arguments of our time through 2 concepts like civil disobedience that are hardly inactive. While “argument is war” may be the default mode for Americans, it is not the only way to argue. Lakoff and Johnson ask their readers to imagine something like “argument is dance” rather than “argument is war” (5). While we can imagine many alternatives to the war metaphor, concepts like argument as collaboration are more common even if they are not commonly used. Argument as collaboration would be more closely linked to words such as dialogue and deliberation, cornerstone concepts in the history of American democracy. However, argument as collaboration is not the prevailing metaphor for public argumentation we see/hear in the mainstream media. One can hardly fault the average American for not being able to imagine argument beyond the war metaphor. Think b ...

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How Do I Make a Case? Engaging the Writing Process No two people compose in exactly the same way, and even the same person may go through the writing process in different ways with different assignments. Nevertheless, because no one can attend to everything at once, there are phases in handling any significant writing task. You explore the topic to get a sense of whether it will work for you and what you might be able to do with it; if the topic is working out for you, then you move into preparing to write, generating more content and planning your draft. The next phase is drafting your paper, getting a version on screen, however rough it may be, so that you can work toward the final draft. Getting there involves two further phases: revising your draft, where you make major improvements in it, followed by editing your draft, taking care of errors, sentences that do not read well, paragraphs lacking focus and flow, and so on. Exploring Your Topic For casemaking, exploring your topic means examining the issues involved in it. If your assignment calls for research, do some general reading about your topic to discover what the issues are. See pages 406–11 for how to find and take notes on source material. If your assignment does not call for research, rely on your general knowledge about the topic to formulate the issues. Page 243 Asking Questions: Find the Issues Asking Questions: Find the Issues An issue is a point of controversy always or frequently raised in connection with a particular topic. For your topic, begin by asking, “What are the questions that people disagree about when discussing this topic?” For instance, the primary purpose of prisons is always an issue when prison reform is discussed. Some see prisons as primarily punishment for crime; others see them as primarily institutions that should rehabilitate criminals. “What should prisons do?” is the question. Other questions include the following: What should be done about prison overcrowding? How can we reduce assaults on inmates by other, violent inmates? Is prison a breeding ground for more criminal behavior after inmates are released? If so, what can be done to prevent this from happening? ACTIVITY 10.1 Collaborative Activity Isolating the Issues List the issues connected with your topic. The key question is, “What do people argue about whenever this topic is discussed?” If your class is working with a common topic or you share your topic with at least one other student, you could collaborate to answer the following exploratory questions: ■ What issues were you unaware of before you formulated them? ■ What positions do people take on these issues? ■ What is your view of these issues? Consider your view of the topic now. If you had no opinion before examining the issues, are you beginning to form one now? If you had an opinion, is it changing significantly? Which issue interests you most? Consider focusing your essay on that issue. ▀ Order the Issues (Stasis) .

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