tomas

Selected Sites of Jordan
Military Life in East & West
Summer Semester 2013/14
Professor Dr. Thomas M. Weber

Jordan/Palestine
Wall of Separation

Natural Zones of Separation
Rivers

Mountains

Desert

Roman Separation Wall: The Limes

Moguntiacum / Mainz / Mayence
THEThe Roman Empire ROMAN
EMPIRE
Philadelphia /
Amman
Limes Germanicus
Limes Orientalis (Arabicus)
Limes Britannicus
Limes Africanus

The Limes Germanicus
Colonia Ulpia Traiana / Xanten

Mogontiacum – Mainz / Mayence

Jagsthausen
UNESCO Word-Heritage Site

Regensburg

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
The Strata Diocletiana

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Dura Europos

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Zenobia

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Sergioupolis / Rusafa

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Palmyra / Tadmor

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Khan al-Hallabat

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Khan Aneiybeh

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Khan Manqoura

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Djebel Seis

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Dmeir

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
The Via Nova Traiana and The Strata Diocletiana

Limes Orientalis
The Syrian Section
Ed-Dhyatheh

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Khirbet al-Beidha

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Nemara

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Bostra / Bosra Sham
Capital of Provincia Arabia from AD 106

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Speluncae ?/ Dair al Kahf

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Ba’jikh

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Ba’ijkh

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Umm id-Djimal

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Dair al Qinn

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr Burqu’

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Azraq

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr Asheikheen

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr Aseikheen

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr al-’Uweinid

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Khirbet as-Samra

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Khirbet Khaw

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Azeima

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qastal: Ummayad Qasr, no traces of Roman fort

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Zozion/Zizia
Auxiliary Unit: Equites Dalmat[ae] Illyriciani
= The Dalmatian Illyrian Cavalry
Year?????

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Umm al-Waleed

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Kastron Mefaa/Umm ar-Rsas

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr al-Al

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr Abu Kharaq

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr Abu Rukhba

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Qasr Bscheer

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Betthorus (Betthorum) Legio / Lejjun

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Plan before 263 AD (Phase I) Plan after 263 AD (Phase II)

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
The Western Gate

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
The Northern Gate
Porta Principalis dextra

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
The Southern Gate
Porta Principalis sinistra

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Constructional details
of two-storeyed
three-quarter circular
corner towers

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Djurf al-Darweesh

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
‘Udruh

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Humayma

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Khirbet Khalde / Praesidium

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Khirbet Khalidi

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Aila / Aqaba

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
Hegra / Mada’in Salih

Auf das Wohlergehen des Kaisers Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus Augustus Armeniacus Parthicus Medicus
Germanicus Sarmaticus Maximus restaurierte die
Gemeinschaft der Hegrener die Mauer (?), die durch Alter
zerstört worden ist auf eigene Kosten unter Iulius
Firmanus, legatus Augusti pro pretore. Die Arbeit wurde
ausgeführt (?) unter Pomponius Victor, Centurio der legio
III Cyrenaica und Numisius Clemens, seinem Kollegen, und
die Ausführung wurde beaufsichtigt von Amrus, dem Sohn
des Haian, des Ersten der Gemeinde.
Präsenz der Römer in Hegra (Summer 175 – [177?] 17. March 180 AD

Limes Orientalis
The Arabian Section
“To the Welfare of Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus
Armeniacus Medicus Germanicus Sarmaticus Maximus the
community (civitas) of the People of Hegra rebuilt the wall (?
vallum???) which was collapsed by its age, on their own expenses
under the rule of Iulius Firmanus, the governor representing the
emperor (“legatus Augusti pro praetore”). This work was executed
(?) under Pomponius Victor, Centurio of the Legio III Cyrenaica,
and his colleague Numisius Clemens, and the construction was
supervised by ‘Amr (Amrus), the son of Hayyan, the first of the
community.”

The Roman Army
Units: The Types of Legions

The Roman Army
General Army Units
1. Land Army 2. Sea Army - navy 3. Aviation Army – Air Force
1a. Combat Units -Infantry – heavy
-- light
-cavalry – heavy
-- light
-artillery – heavy
-- light
1c. General Staff - Generals and Ordonances
- Corps of Officers
- Signals
1b. Supply Units - pioneers
- scouts
- ambulance
- suppliers

The Roman Navy
General Army Units
2. Sea Army - Roman navy

The Roman Army
Legionary Army Units
Important terms
Legio (Imperial) - A legion was composed of nine cohorts and one first cohort. The legion's
overall commander was the legatus legionis, assisted by the praefectus castrorum and other
senior officers.
Cohors (Cohortes) - A cohort consisted of 480 men. The most senior ranking centurion of
the six centuria commanded the entire cohort.
First Cohort (Cohors Prima) - The first cohort was a double strength cohort (consisting of
five double-strength centuria) with a size of 800 men (excluding officers). The centurion of
its first centuria, the Primus Pilus, commanded the first cohort and was also the most
senior Centurion in the legion.
Centuria - A centuria consisted of 80 men under the command of a Centurion and
his Optio. Six centuria formed a cohort.
Contubernium - The smallest organized unit of soldiers in the Roman Army. It was composed
of eight legionaries led by a non-commissioned officer called a decanus. Ten contubernia
formed a centuria.
Vexillatio - These were temporary task forces composed of one or multiple centuria deta-
ched from the legion for a specific purpose. Vexillations were under the command of an
officer appointed by the Legatus.

The Roman Army
Army Units
The Centuria

The Roman Army
Auxilary Army Units
Ala : The ala was composed entirely of cavalry. The name is Latin for wing and
derives from the use of horsemen on the flanks of an army, where they gave
protection to the infantry centre. The alae were normally of a strength of
roughly five hundred (quingenaria), but there were a few of the strength of
roughly a thousand (millaria)
Turma : By the second century the ala quingenaria were arranged into section
of sixteen turmae, whereas the ala millaria were partitioned into twenty
four turmae. So a turma was not necessarily always of the same size.
Commander: praefectus alae

The Roman Army
Auxilary Army Units: Cavalry
Ala Parthorum et Araborum (Mainz)

Arabs from Amman serving in the Roman army

The Roman Army
General Army Units
Arabian Auxiliary Troops in Service of the Roman Army

The Roman Army
General Army Units
Auxiliary Cavalry Troops in Service in exerise

The Roman Army
Ala Hamiorum (Syria)

The Roman Army
Ala Augusta

The Roman Army
Ala Ituraeorum Sagittariorum

The Roman Army
Ala Ituraeorum Assyriae

The Roman Army
Auxilary Army Units: Infantry
Cohors Ituraeorum Assyriae

The Roman Army
Auxilary Army Units: Infantry
Cohors Dalmatorum

The Roman Army
Auxilary Army Units: Dromedarii
Palmyra, Museum

The Roman Army
Army Units: Early Arab Dromedar Archers

The Roman Army
Auxiliary Units
The Nabataeans
D. Graf: The Nabataean Army and
the Cohortes Ulpiae Petraeorum, in:
Rome from the Nabataeans to the
Saracenes, Aldershot 1997: X-XI.
Chapter V.

The Roman Allies in Bilad al-Sham
The Nabataeans
Fancy Nabataean Military Costumes worn in actual “Petra-Show”

The Ghassanid Kings
Allies of Byzantium in Syria and Arabia
Jafnah I ibn Àmr (220-265)
Àmr I ibn Jafnah (265-270)
Tha'labah ibn Amr (270-287)
al-Harith I ibn Thàlabah (287-307)
Jabalah I ibn al-Harith I (307-317)
al-Harith II ibn Jabalah "ibn Maria" (317-327)
al-Mundhir I Senior ibn al-Harith II (327-330) with...
al-Aiham ibn al-Harith II (327-330) and...
al-Mundhir II Junior ibn al-Harith II (327-340) and...
al-Nu'man I ibn al-Harith II (327-342) and...
Àmr II ibn al-Harith II (330-356) and...
Jabalah II ibn al-Harith II (327-361)
Jafnah II ibn al-Mundhir I (361-391) with...
al-Nu'man II ibn al-Mundhir I (361-362)
al-Nu'man III ibn 'Amr ibn al-Mundhir I (391-418)
Jabalah III ibn al-Nu'man (418-434)
al-Nu'man IV ibn al-Aiham (434-455) with...
al-Harith III ibn al-Aiham (434-456) and...
al-Nu'man V ibn al-Harith (434-453)
al-Mundhir II ibn al-Nu'man (453-472) with...
Àmr III ibn al-Nu'man (453-486) and...
Hijr ibn al-Nu'man (453-465)
al-Harith IV ibn Hijr (486-512)
Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith (512-529)
al- Amr IV ibn Machi (Mah’shee) (529)
al-Harith V ibn Jabalah (529-569)
al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith (569-581) with...
Abu Kirab al-Nu'man ibn al-Harith (570-582)
al-Nu'man VI ibn al-Mundhir (581-583)
al-Harith VI ibn al-Harith (583)
al-Nu'man VII ibn al-Harith Abu Kirab (583- ?)
al-Aiham ibn Jabalah (? -614)
al-Mundhir IV ibn Jabalah (614- ?)
Sharahil ibn Jabalah (61 -618)
Amr IV ibn Jabalah (628)
Jabalah V ibn al-Harith (628-632)
Jabalah VI ibn al-Aiham (632-638)
Ghassan Al-Hourani (638-712)

The Ghassanid Kingdom
Ghassanid King Al-Harith in his tent, speaking with Abu
Zayd to the right in the 26th maqamat. Al-Harith was a
popular character of Arab history, folktales, and sagas,
book illustration about AD 1335, Vienna National
Library

The Roman Allies in Bilad al-Sham
The Ghassanids (Beni Ghassan)
http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?185336-Lahkmid-Arabs-
amp-Ghassanid-Auxiliaries
Fancy Computer-Game Ghassanid Soldiers
(without any historic and archaeological evidence)

The Roman Army
Command Structure

The Roman Army
Military Ranks: The Generals
Legatus Militum – Magister Militum per Orientem
Emperor Traian in the Dacian wars with his Generals

The Roman Army
Highest Commander
Legatus Militum (or legionis) – Magister Militum per Orientem
Possible Portrait (unsecure!!!) of the Magister
Militum Flavius Belisarius (Belisarios , Βελισάριος
* around 405 AD, † 565 AD

The Roman Army
ca. 347: Flavius Eusebius, magister utriusquae militiae[15]
349–359: Ursicinus, magister equitum under Constantius[13]
359–360: Sabinianus, magister equitum under Constantius[13]
363–367: Lupicinus, magister equitum under Jovian and Valens[9]
371–378: Iulius, magister equitum et Peditum under Valens[9]
383: Flavius Richomeres, magister equitum et peditum[1]
383–388: Ellebichus, magister equitum et peditum[1]
392: Eutherius, magister equitum et peditum[1]
393–396: Addaeus, magister equitum et peditum[1]
395/400: Fravitta
433–446: Anatolius
447–451: Zeno
460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar
-469: Iordanes

The Roman Army
469–471: Zeno
483–498: Ioannes Scytha
c.503–505: Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus
505–506: Pharesmanes
?516-?518: Hypatius
?518–529: Diogenianus
520-525/526: Hypatius
527: Libelarius
527–529: Hypatius
529–531: Belisarius
531: Mundus
540: Buzes
542: Belisarius
543–544: Martinus
555: Amantius
556: Valerianus
569: Zemarchus
572–573: Marcian
573: Theodorus
574: Eusebius
574/574-577: Justinian
577–582: Maurice
582–583: John Mystacon
584-587/588: Philippicus
588: Priscus
588–589: Philippicus
589–591: Comentiolus
591–603: Narses
603-604 Germanus
604-605 Leontius
605-610 Domentziolus

The Roman Army
Army Units and military ranks
Second highest commander
Tribunus Militum
High ranked officer on a temporary limited term of
duty, coming from the Roman nobility. 6 Tribuni per
legion with commanding power. Two ranks must be
distinguished by the purple stripes of the underwear
tunics:

The Roman Army
Third highest commander
Praefectus Castrorum
Camp commander without combat command. He supervised the discipline in the camp.
He was responsible for food and other material supply,
especially on the Department of weaponry
(armentaria), the field hospital, the Department of
accounting and registration (tabulinarium), the
Department of custody.

The Roman Army
Primus Pilus, Centurio and Optio

The Roman Army
Official Insignia: The Fasces and the
Licores (Lictor)

The Roman Army
Army standards and tactical signs
The Eagle (Aquila) and Roman Standard (vexillum)

Vexillarius
The Roman Army
Army standarts and tactical signs
Aquilifer
Signifer

The Roman Army
Army standart and tactical signs
Legionary standarts: The Vexilla

The Roman Army
The Vexillum Project
Bibliography:
M.I. Rostovtzeff, "Vexillum and Victory," Journal of Roman Studies Vol. 32 (1942)
pp. 92-106.
A. Croom, The reconstruction of a Roman vexillum, in: The Arbeia Journal 2,
1993: 40-45
E. Dąbrowa, Le vexillum sur les monnaies coloniales (IIe - IIIe siècle après J.-C.,
in: Latomus 63, 2004: 394-405
Contact: Mona Reich 079-6922682

The Roman Army
Bibliography:
Contact: Mona Reich 079-6922682
Vexillarius in the company of the Military Tribune Terentius, Wall Painting
from the Temple of Bel, Dura Europos, New Haven, Ct., Yale University

Original Vexillum found in Egypt, Moscow, Museum of Fine Arts
The Roman Army

The Roman Army
ATTENTION:
The Symbol of the LEG III CYRENAICA was NOT the Victory, but the Ibex!!!!!

The Roman Army
Croom, A., The reconstruction
of a Roman vexillum, in: The
Arbeia Journal 2, 1993: 40-45

The Roman Army

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project
The ancient Sources
Eagle Cameos, Vienna, Art
Historian Museum

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project: The Ancient Sources
The Lorica of the statue of Augustus from Prima
Porta
Denarius of Marcus Antonius (32 BC)
Coin of Augustus showing the Signa Militaria retrieved
from the Parthians: Bare head of Augustus on the left
and on the reverse (right) is a circular shield with aquila
on its left. "S" and "P" is written on both left and right at
the top of the shield, and "Q" and "R" on both sides at
the bottom of the shield.(29 BC)

The Roman Army
The Column of Trajan at Rome

The Roman Army
Tombstones of Aquiliferi

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project: The Modern Bronze Eagle
Bought in Amman Downtown: Price 35 JD

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project: The SPQR-Tablet

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project: Modern Models of Aquila
with SPQR Base

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project: Construction plan of Base

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project: Aqulia with wreath
Standard for Aquila from wood and wreathed Aqula with SPQR table at Irbid

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project
Working on the Aqulia at Beni Kinaneh, April 26th, 2014

The Roman Army
The Aquila Project
Aquilifer Outfit

The Roman Army
The Cornicen

The Roman Army
The Cornicen: The Column of Traian, Rome

The Roman Army
The Imago of the Emperor

The Roman Army
• Modern Military Decorations

The Roman Army
The Dona Militaria
The Phalerae

The Roman Army
The Dona Militaria: Distinctions
The Phalerae
M (arco) Caelio T (iti) f (ilio) Lem (onia
tribV) Bon (onia)
[ I ] o (rdini) leg (ionis) XIIX ann (orVm) LIII
s (emissis)
[ ce ] cidit bello Variano ossa
[ lib (ertorVm) i ]nferre licebit
P (VbliVs) CaeliVs T (iti) f (iliVs)
Lem (onia tribV) frater fecit
“For Marcus Caelius, son of Titus, from the
Lemonia tribe at Bononia (Bologna),
(Centurio) of the 1st order of the 18th
Legion, who died in the war of Varus. The
bones of his freedmen may be buried
here.
Publius Caelius, son of Titus, from the
Lemonia tribe, his brother made it+Epitaph of Marcus Caelius (ca. 45 BC- 9 AD)
Phalerae
Torques
Armllae

The Roman Army
The Phalerae: The Lauersfort Treasure

The Roman Army
The Signa Militaria

The Roman Army
The Signa Militaria
Defeat of the Romans in the battle of Carrhai (Syria) in 53 BC
Marcus Licinius Crassus

The Roman Army
The Signa Militaria
Augustus from Primaporta: The return of the Signa Militaria from the Parthians (Persians)

Who were
The Enemies of the Romans?

The Persians: Parthians and Sasanids
Naqsh ar-Rustam / Iran

The Arcasid Dynasty (ca. 247 b.C.- 224 AD)
Arsakes I. (ca. 247/38 -217 v.Chr.)
Arsakes II. (ca. 217-191 v.Chr.)
Phriapatios (ca. 191-176 v.Chr.)
Phraates I. (176-171 v.Chr.)
Mithridates I. (171-139/8 v.Chr.)
Phraates II. (138/9-128 v.Chr.)
Artabanos I. (128-124/3 v.Chr.)
Mithridates II. (123-88 v.Chr.)
Gotzares I. (91/0-81/0 v.Chr.)
Orodes I. (81/0-76/5 v.Chr.)
Sinatrukes (ca. 78/7-71/0 v.Chr.)
[Artabanos II. (88-77 v.Chr.)]
Phraates III. (71/0-58/7 v.Chr.)
Mithridates III. (58/7 v.Chr.)
Orodes II. (58/7-38 v.Chr.)
Phraates IV. (38 – 2 v.Chr.)
Phraates V. (3/2 v.Chr. – 4 n.Chr.)
Orodes III. (4-6 n.Chr.)
Vonones I. (8./9 -10/12 n.Chr.)
Artabanos II. (10/1-38 n.Chr.)
Gotzares II. (43/4-51 n.Chr.)
Vologaises I. (51-77/78 n.Chr.)
Pakoros (77/8-114/5 n.Chr.)
Artabanos III. (79-81 n.Chr.)
Osroes (108/9 – 127/8 n.Chr.)
Vologaises III. (111/2 – 147/8 n.Chr.)
Vologaises IV. (147/8-191/2 n.Chr.)
Vologaises V. (191/2-207/8 n.Chr.)
Vologaises VI. (207/8-221/2 oder 227/8 n.Chr.)
Artabanos IV (213-224n.Chr.)
Mithridates I. Phraates III.
Vologaises I.Vonones I.
Vologaises III. Vologaises IV.

The „new“-Persian Empire of the Sasanids (224-651 AD
Shapur I. besiegt Valerian 260 n.Chr.
Sardonyx-Cameo, 3.-4. Jh. n.Chr.
Silberbüste Shapurs II. (?)
Ardaxshir I. 224-239/40, Tod: 241/2
Shapur I. 240-270/72
Hormzid I. 270/2-273
Vahram I. 273-276
Vahram II. 276-293
Vahram III 293
Narseh 293-302
Hormzid II. 302-309
Shapur II. 309-379
Ardaxshir II. 379-383
Shapur III. 383-388
Vahram IV. 388-399
Yazgird I. 399-421
Vahram V. Gor 439-457
Yazgird II. 439-457
Hormzid III. 457-459
Peroz 459-484
Valaxsh 484-488
Kavad I. 488-496, 499-531
Zamasp 496-498
Chosraw I. 531-579
Hormizd IV. 579-590
Chosraw II. 590-628
Vahram VI. Chobin 590-591
Kavad II. 628
Ardaxshir III. 628-630
Shahrbaraz 630
Chosraw III. 630
Puran 630-631
Azarmigduxt 631
Hormizd V. 631-632
Chosraw IV. 631-633
Yazdgird III. 633-651
Klibanarier, Felsrelief, Firuzabad

The Lahmid allies of the Persians

Who were
The Enemies of the Romans?
The Jewish Revolts: The Sicarii

The Roman military camps
Castrum – Castra
Ancient Writer: Hyginius Gromaticus
(ca. – century AD)
On the Furnishment of Military Camps
(Liber de Munitionibus Castrorum)
https://archive.org/details/liberdemunitioni00hygiuoft

The Roman military camps
Mesurement quadrillation according to
Hyginus Gromaticus
The 60 feet “Stringa”

Roman castellum: Saalburg, Germany Roman castellum: ‘Udruh, Jordan

Encampment in tents
Tents of the Contubernia : 3 m x 3 m = “paliliones”
Tents of the Centuriones : 6 m x 6” m
Tents of Commander (legatus) = “augurale” side length 14 m and more

Encampment in tents
The contubernium: simple leather tent (“papilio”)
3 m
3 m
Tent = “Papilio” = “butterfly”

Encampment in tents
The contubernium: leather tent (“papilio”)

Encampment in tents
Commander’s tent (augurale)
with fanum

The Planning of a castrum
groma
Agrimensores Centuriation of town and
countryside into equal units= actus
(710 meters)
The Military Surveyors:
“ Gromatici”

The Religious Foundation of a Colony

Survival of Roman Centuriation today
Po-Valley in northern Italy

Encampment in tents
The Principle Elements of a Castrum (schematic)
Praetorium
Groma
Via Principalia Sinstra Via Principalia Dextra
ViaPraetoriaPrincipia
Commanders
Residence
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium contubernium
Tribuni
Praefecti
Praefecti
Centuriones
Centuriones
Centuriones
Centuriones
Centuriones
Ala
Ala
Ala
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
Horreumarmentarium
Signiferi
and
vexillarius
contubernium
contubernium
contubernium
Hospital
ViaDecumana

Stone castrum with defensive ditches
(fossae)

The Commander’s place: The praetorium

The Commander’s place:
The praetorium

The praetorium and the principia

The Sanctuary of Flags and Standards
(Aedes)

The Tabularium
Roman Diptych: Two
wooden tablets filled with
wax and metal pen (stylus)
Registration and
messenger (postal) service

The Tabularium:
Written Record of a Legionary fabrica
Hand-written Papyrus Berlin P. 6765, detailing the
production in a legionary weapon workshop
(fabrica) over two days (late 2nd to begin of 3rd
century AD), found in Egypt.
Items:
Swords, shields, bows, parts of artillery
Staff:
Legionaries, auxiliaries, civilians, slaves of solderies

The Tabularium:
Military Administrators (selection)
Cornicularius: Head of Military Office, chief of administrative paper work in the tabularium
Act(u)arius: Keeper of records
Librarius: Keeper of archives
Exactus: Controller of payments
Primiscrinius: Head of administrative office
Scriniarius : An administrative official or clerk.
Numeriarius: Accountant, clerk
Erogator: Tax collector , also responsible for credit payments
Adiutiva: Helper, secretary
Subadiuva: Under-secretary
Military Scribe Heliodoros, in the rank of an
actuarius, painting from Dura Europos
(Syria), New Haven, Ct., Yale University Art
Museum

The Roman Army Equipment
Basic Bibliography

Roman Legionary

Roman Auxiliary Infantry (“marines”)

Roman Auxiliary Cavalrists

Roman Army Equipment
underwear

underwear: Tunica: cut-design and colors

Tunica: Original Textile Finds at Ghor as-Safi

Tunica: Traditional Handmade Cotton Tissue
at ‘Iraq al-Emir

The Purple Snail: MUREX
Murex trunculus
(Sidon)
Murex brandaris
(Tyros)
Purpura
haemostoma
Porphyry Stone (Egypt)
Plinius, Nat.Hist. IX 132; XXI 45:
Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Purple
Representation of a Byzantine couple dressed in purple official
ornate. Chrysobullon of emperor Alexios I. Komnenos(1204-1222),
Mone Dionysiou, Mount Athos.

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Purple: Saida

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Purple: Tyros

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Red
The Kermes-Insect

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods:
The Kermes-Insect

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Blue
Indigo

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Cochineal Red
Cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus)

Tunica: Traditional Dye-Methods: Cochineal Red

Rubia Tinctorum, engl.: Rubia; arab.: fuwwa; seba

Carthamus tinctorius, engl.:Safflower; arab.: kurtum;
‘usfur

Opuntia cochinillifera, engl.:Cochinea cactus; arab.: sabr

Tunica and Paenula

overall: Paenula

overall: Paenula, military version

Legionary Sandal: The Caliga(e)
Original Caliga found at
Mainz, 1st century AD.
Mainz, Landesmuseum

Food of a bronze statue
of a horseman, Roman
Kalkriese, Museum

The body armor (lorica “musculata”)
Marble Loricati Statues of Emperors and high-ranked Generals: from left Toledo (Ohio),
Sabratha (Libya) and Munich (Germany).

The body armor : Greek Tradition
Greek “muscle armor”, 7th century BC
Greek Panoply of am Hoplites;6h century BC

The body armor : Greek Tradition
Spartanian Phalanx and heavy armed Hoplite, 7th - 6th century BC

The body armor (lorica segmentata):
The Corbridge Hoard

The body armor (lorica):
The Corbridge Hook Type

The Locrica Segmentata

1st-2nd century AD:
Type Corbridge
The Amman Replica

The Body Armor (Lorica Hamata)
Chain mail Armors
Original chain mail shirt from Palestine, Jerusalem, Israel Museum

The Body Armor (Lorica Hamata)
Chain mail Armors
Reconstructed Lorica Hamata
Original breast lock of a Lorica Hamata,
Bronze, Mainz, Roman-Germanic Central
Museum

The Shield (scutum):
Literary Source:
Polybios: VI 23
“It (the shield) consists of two layers of wood fastened
together with bull’s hide glue: The outer surface is then
covered first with canvas and then with calf skin. The
upper and lower edges are bound with iron to protect
the shield from the cutting strokes of swords and from
wear when resting on the ground. In the centre is fixed
an iron boss, which turns aside the heavy impact of
stones, pikes and weighty missiles in general.”

The Shield (scutum)
Dura Europos (Syria)

Roman Arms: The Shield (scutum)
Dura Europos (Syria)

Roman Arms: The Shield (scutum)
Shield Decorations according to the Notitia Dignitatum

Roman Arms: The Shield (scutum0
Shield bosses
Munich, Art Market

Roman Arms: The short combat sword (gladius)
Early swords: Type Mainz with “Spanish blade”

Roman Arms: The short combat sword (gladius)
Early Swords-Sections: Application of Iron with different grade of carbon

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Swords
Early Roman gladius (spatha) worn with balteus and broad officers belt (cingulum)

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Swords
Replica of Roman Cavalry Sword (Spatha) made in Jordan: Blade according to the “gladius
Hispanensis” Type Mainz; Sheath out of wood covered by aluminium foil (olive oil
containers). Note the oblique balteus fixed on four rings along the shed.

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Sword

The Sword
Fatal injures caused by Roman swords on the skulls of killed enemies

Roman Arms: The daggers (pugio)

Roman Arms: Military Belt (cingulum militare)
Bibliography: Stephanie Hoss, C I N G U L U M M I L I T A R E . Studien zum römischen
Soldatengürtel des 1. bis 3. Jh. n. Chr, Diss. Leiden 2014; S. Hoss, The Roman Military
Belt, in : Wearing the Cloak, Dressing the Soldier in Roman Times, ed. M.-L. Nock,
Oxford – Oakville 2013, 29-44

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Military Belt (cingulum militare)
Replica of Roman Cingulum made in Jordan, broad officer’s version, without hanger straps
and pendants (aprons)

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Officer Belt: The cingulum militare

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Military Belt (Cingulum militare)
Replica of Roman Cingulum made in Jordan, broad officer’s version, with hanger straps

Roman Army Weapons
Roman Military Belts (Cingula)
Replica of Roman Cingulum made in Jordan, broad officer’s version, with hanger straps

Roman Arms: The javelin (pilum)

Roman Arms: The javelin
(pilum)

Roman Arms: The spears (pilum)

Roman Arms: The spears (pilum)
Fatal injures caused by Roman spears on the skulls of killed enemies

Roman Arms: The Helmets
1st Century AD: Type Haguenau
1st – 2nd Century AD: Type Weisenau

2nd – 3rd Century AD: Type Niederbieber

3rd -1st Century BC: Type Montefortino
Bologna, Museo Civico Monterenzio Vecchio, Bologna

Roman Legionary Helmet from Haguenau/Drusenheim: Haguenau, Musee
To the right: Modern replica (material wrongly restored).

1st - 2nd Century AD:
Type Weisenau
The Amman Replica

Nabataean Army
Corinthian Helmet of the 66th century BC
The Nabataean Show at Petra

Nabataean Army: Helmets
Relief representation of a Late-Hellenistic Helmet of Attic Type, from Petra,
Petra, Archaeological Museum

Hellenistic Army: Pseudo-Attic Helmets
Marble Portrait Head of a Hellenistic King (Seleucos I Nicator?) from Beirut, Paris, Louvre MA 3597

Hellenistic Army: Helmets
Hellenistic Mural Painting: The Tomb of Lysson and Kallikles at Vergina / Macedonia/ Greece

Hellenistic Helm from Melos, 2nd century BC: Berlin, Staatliche Museen

Late-Hellenistic Helm from Pergamon,
late 1st century BC: Berlin, Staatliche
Museen
Relief representation of a Late-Hellenistic
Helmet of Attic Type, from Petra, Petra,
Archaeological Museum

Nabataean Army: Armor
Relief busts of the astral sign of
the twins, both in Hellenistic
armors with sholder straps and
leater arm guards. On the head
the typical conical felt caps (piloi),
from Khiret ad-Dharih, Amman,
Jordan Museum

Fragments of men in Hellenistic armors with shoulder straps and arm guards, from
Khirbet at-Tannour, Amman Jordan Archaeologial Museum (Citadel)

Relief showing lower part of an Hellenistic armor with commander fillet and leather straps,
from Petra, Petra, Archaeological Museum

Royel Iron Armor with gold attachments, from Vergina, Royal Cemetery,
Hellenistic Army: Iron-Armor

Hellenistic Army: Linnen Armor
Alexander-Mosaic, from Pompeii, casa del Fauno, Naples, National Museum

Hellenistic Army: Linnen Armor (linothorax)

Reconstruction of a Nabataean Sword, Amman, University
Nabataean Army: Swords
Reconstruction of a Nabataean Sword,
Amman, University

Nabataean Army: Shields
Fragmented block with representation of a sea monster (left) and an oval shield
with central boss in the shape of a Medusa’s head (Gorgoneion), from Petra,
Petra. Archaeological Museum

Nabataean Army: Shields
Fragment of Shield boss in the shape of an embossed frontal Lion head,
from Petra, Petra. Archaeological Museum

Early Roman Army: Shield-Boss
Bronze Shield boss in the Shape of a frontal Lion Head, Munich, Art Market

Nabataean Warrior-in Armor Bust Relief with two spears, Petra, near Nazal Camp

Nabataean Army: Spears
Nabataean Horseman Bust Relief, wearing a balteus, in the background left blade
of a spear and background right head of the horse, Kerak, Castle

Fragmented Bust of a Warrior God with two spears, from Petra,

Bust of a Warrior God with spear, from Petra,

Bust of a bearded Warrior with two spears, from Khirbet Braq,

Relief block with representation of an ax with curved blade and hooked vftloral
end, from Petra, Petra, Archaeological Museum
Nabataean Army: Ax

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