El documento describe cómo el Everest se ha convertido en un circo debido a la gran afluencia de turistas y alpinistas que lo han convertido en un destino masivo, poniendo en peligro vidas por la falta de preparación y la búsqueda de récords. Relata varios casos de montañeros que murieron en la "zona de muerte" debido a la falta de oxígeno y las malas condiciones, y cómo a menudo otros escaladores no pueden o no quieren ayudar por miedo a poner en riesgo sus propias vidas.
Methods and stages of Mineral Exploration: Adaptive Resource Management PlanNgatcha Bryan
Exploration can be divided into a number of interlinked and sequential stages which involve increasing
expenditure and decreasing risk. Early stages of exploration are planning and prospecting. The planning
stage covers the selection of commodity, type of deposit, exploration methods, and the seĴing up of an
exploration entity. Prospecting covers activities leading to the selection of an area for detailed ground
work; this is the point at which land is acquired. The subsequent stages involve targeted prospecting and
exploration in order to quantify and qualify the mineral resources. Pre-feasibility study is then
performed for evaluating the commercial viability of the deposit (Adapted from Moon et al., 2006).
This document discusses aeolian depositional features and landforms formed by wind erosion and deposition. It begins by introducing aeolian processes and the different environments where they are common. It then describes how wind deposits sediment through sedimentation, accretion, and encroachment. Major landforms formed include sand dunes like barchans, seifs, parabolic, and star dunes. Sand sheets, loess, and sand ridges are also discussed. The document provides detailed descriptions of the formation and characteristics of these different aeolian features and landforms.
The document summarizes the stratigraphy and geological succession of the Singhbhum Craton located in eastern India. It describes the various rock groups that make up the craton in chronological order from oldest to youngest. The oldest is the Older Metamorphic Group composed of gneisses and schists. Unconformably above this lies the economically important Banded Iron Formation of the Iron Ore Group. Intruding all the older rock is the Singhbhum Granite batholith. Younger sedimentary successions include the Singhbhum Group, overlain by volcanic Dhanjori Group lavas and the Gangpur Group sediments. The stratigraphy represents the geological evolution of the Singhbhum Crat
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
The document summarizes key features of continental margins and ocean basins. Continental margins have three divisions: continental shelves, slopes, and rises. Shelves gently slope away from land and are composed of continental crust. Slopes more steeply slope from shelves into ocean basins. Rises are found at the base of slopes and accumulate sediment. Margins are either passive with thick sediment or active with thin sediment at convergent plate boundaries. Ocean basins cover 30% of Earth and contain abyssal plains, trenches, ridges, and seamounts.
The Salt Range is a hill system in Pakistan known for extensive salt deposits. It contains major salt mines and extends between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers. The Salt Range exposes sedimentary rocks from 600 million years ago to the present, though there are gaps in the record. It formed through the collision of the Indian plate with island arcs, causing folding and thrust faulting. Salt then rose through the overlying rocks in a process called salt diapirism, contributing to the unique geological features visible today.
This fieldwork report summarizes Mansoor Aziz's geological fieldwork in the Salt Range of Pakistan. It describes 6 stations visited across the Eastern and Western Salt Range. The stations examined formations from the Precambrian to Eocene, observing lithology, fossils, contacts, and environments of deposition. Key formations mentioned include the Sakesar Limestone, Tobra Conglomerate, Baghanwala Formation, and Salt Range Formation. The report provides location details, photographs, and observations about the local geology and mining activities.
Orogeny involves plate tectonics forces that result in crustal deformation, thickening, thinning and melting, as well as magmatism, metamorphism and mineralization to form mountains. The sequence of sedimentation, deposition, erosion, metamorphism, and formation of granitic batholiths through crustal melting followed by tectonic uplift to form mountain chains is known as the orogenic cycle, which can take millions of years.
Methods and stages of Mineral Exploration: Adaptive Resource Management PlanNgatcha Bryan
Exploration can be divided into a number of interlinked and sequential stages which involve increasing
expenditure and decreasing risk. Early stages of exploration are planning and prospecting. The planning
stage covers the selection of commodity, type of deposit, exploration methods, and the seĴing up of an
exploration entity. Prospecting covers activities leading to the selection of an area for detailed ground
work; this is the point at which land is acquired. The subsequent stages involve targeted prospecting and
exploration in order to quantify and qualify the mineral resources. Pre-feasibility study is then
performed for evaluating the commercial viability of the deposit (Adapted from Moon et al., 2006).
This document discusses aeolian depositional features and landforms formed by wind erosion and deposition. It begins by introducing aeolian processes and the different environments where they are common. It then describes how wind deposits sediment through sedimentation, accretion, and encroachment. Major landforms formed include sand dunes like barchans, seifs, parabolic, and star dunes. Sand sheets, loess, and sand ridges are also discussed. The document provides detailed descriptions of the formation and characteristics of these different aeolian features and landforms.
The document summarizes the stratigraphy and geological succession of the Singhbhum Craton located in eastern India. It describes the various rock groups that make up the craton in chronological order from oldest to youngest. The oldest is the Older Metamorphic Group composed of gneisses and schists. Unconformably above this lies the economically important Banded Iron Formation of the Iron Ore Group. Intruding all the older rock is the Singhbhum Granite batholith. Younger sedimentary successions include the Singhbhum Group, overlain by volcanic Dhanjori Group lavas and the Gangpur Group sediments. The stratigraphy represents the geological evolution of the Singhbhum Crat
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
The document summarizes key features of continental margins and ocean basins. Continental margins have three divisions: continental shelves, slopes, and rises. Shelves gently slope away from land and are composed of continental crust. Slopes more steeply slope from shelves into ocean basins. Rises are found at the base of slopes and accumulate sediment. Margins are either passive with thick sediment or active with thin sediment at convergent plate boundaries. Ocean basins cover 30% of Earth and contain abyssal plains, trenches, ridges, and seamounts.
The Salt Range is a hill system in Pakistan known for extensive salt deposits. It contains major salt mines and extends between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers. The Salt Range exposes sedimentary rocks from 600 million years ago to the present, though there are gaps in the record. It formed through the collision of the Indian plate with island arcs, causing folding and thrust faulting. Salt then rose through the overlying rocks in a process called salt diapirism, contributing to the unique geological features visible today.
This fieldwork report summarizes Mansoor Aziz's geological fieldwork in the Salt Range of Pakistan. It describes 6 stations visited across the Eastern and Western Salt Range. The stations examined formations from the Precambrian to Eocene, observing lithology, fossils, contacts, and environments of deposition. Key formations mentioned include the Sakesar Limestone, Tobra Conglomerate, Baghanwala Formation, and Salt Range Formation. The report provides location details, photographs, and observations about the local geology and mining activities.
Orogeny involves plate tectonics forces that result in crustal deformation, thickening, thinning and melting, as well as magmatism, metamorphism and mineralization to form mountains. The sequence of sedimentation, deposition, erosion, metamorphism, and formation of granitic batholiths through crustal melting followed by tectonic uplift to form mountain chains is known as the orogenic cycle, which can take millions of years.
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
Rocks are divided into three major groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either underground to form intrusive rocks or on the surface to form extrusive rocks. The texture and structure of igneous rocks depends on factors like the cooling rate, mineral composition, and gas content of the magma. Common igneous rock features include phenocrysts, vesicles, xenoliths, columnar joints, and sills/dikes.
Most deserts have highly angular landscapes due to mechanical weathering dominating over deposition. Desert rainfall is infrequent, intense, and unreliable, causing flash flooding and erosion. The three main types of deserts are ergs, which are large seas of sand; regs with thin desert pavements of stones; and hamadas dominated by bedrock. In deserts, fluvial erosion carves steep canyons, while deposition forms alluvial fans. Aeolian processes cause erosion through deflation and abrasion, and deposition forms migrating dunes like barchans and transverse dunes. Desert terrain also includes basin and range topography with pediments and playas, and resistant rock landforms emerge like insel
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
This document summarizes information about the olivine and mica mineral groups. It discusses the crystal structure, composition, optical properties, and occurrence of common olivine minerals like forsterite and fayalite. It also summarizes the classification, crystal structure, optical properties, and common members of the mica group like muscovite, biotite, and phlogopite. Diagrams are included showing the crystal structure and optical orientation of these minerals.
Tectonites are deformed rocks whose fabric is due to systematic movement under external forces. Their fabric reflects the deformation history. Fabric includes the geometric arrangement of mineral grains, layers, and other features at a scale that includes many samples. Tectonites can have planar (S-tectonite), linear (L-tectonite), or both (L-S tectonite) fabrics indicating different strain types. Foliations like cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity are planar fabrics that cause rocks to break along parallel surfaces. Lineations indicate preferred linear fabrics, such as fold axes, boudins, and quartz rods. The orientation and interaction of foliations and lineations provide information about tect
Models and exploration methods for major gold deposit typesMYO AUNG Myanmar
Models and Exploration Methods for Major Gold Deposit Types
Robert, F.[1], Brommecker, R.[1] Bourne, B. T.[2]
, Dobak, P. J.3], McEwan, C. .J.[4],Rowe, R. R.[2], Zhou, X.
[1]
_________________________ 1. Barrick Gold Corporation, Toronto, ON
, Canada
2. Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd., Perth, WA, Australia 3. Barrick Gold Exploration Inc., Elko, NV, U.S.A 4. Compania Minera Barrick Chile Ltda., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
ABSTRACT
Gold occurs as primary commodity in a wide range of gold deposit types and settings. In the last decade, significant progress has been made in the classification, definition and understanding of the main gold deposit types. Three main clans of deposits are now broadly
defined, each including a range of specific de
posit types with common characteristics and tectonic settings. The orogenic clan has
been introduced to include vein
-
type deposits formed during crustal shortening of their host greenstone, BIF or clastic sedimentary
rock sequences. Deposits of the new red
uced intrusion-
related clan share an Au
- Bi-
Te
-
As metal signature and an association with
moderately reduced equigranular post
-
orogenic granitic intrusions. Oxidized intrusion-related deposits, including porphyry, skarn,and high-
sulfidation epithermal depo sits, are associated with high-
level, oxidized porphyry stocks in magmatic arcs. Other important deposit types include Carlin, low sulfidation pithermal, Au,rich VMS and Witwatersrand deposits. The key geology features of the ore- forming environments and the key geologic manifestations of the different deposit types form the footprints of ore systems that are targeted in exploration programs. Important progress has been made in our ability to integrate, process, and visualize increasingly complex datasets
in 2D GIS and 3D platforms. For gold exploration, important geophysical advances include airborne gravity, routine 3D inversions of potential field data, and 3D modeling of electrical data. Improved satellite -, airborne- and field-based
infrared spectroscopy has significantly improved alteration mapping around gold systems, extending the dimensions of the footprints and enhancing vectoring capabilities. Conventional geochemistry remains very important to gold exploration, while promising new techniques are
being tested. Selection of the appropriate exploration methods must be dictated by the characteristics of the targeted model, its geologic setting, and the surficial environment. Both greenfield and brownfield exploration contributed to the discovery of ma jor gold deposits (>2.5 moz Au) in the last decade but the discovery rates have declined significantly. Geologists are now better equipped than ever to face this difficult challenge, but geological understanding and quality field work were important discov ery factors and must remain the key underpinnings of exploration programs
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Foliation refers to planar structures in metamorphic rocks that form as a result of shearing forces and pressure during metamorphism. Foliations include the parallel alignment of platy minerals defining layers in schist and slate, as well as the flattened grains in gneiss. Foliations form due to the realignment and recrystallization of minerals under heat and pressure, and can include preferred orientations of grains, lenses of different mineral compositions, and crystallographic alignment of minerals. Foliations influence the mechanical and thermal properties of rocks and must be considered for engineering projects in foliated bedrock.
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rock formation processes including weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis. It discusses various types of weathering mechanisms and factors that influence weathering. Various sedimentary environments are also described such as fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert. Specific sedimentary structures and deposits associated with different environments are outlined.
Geology is the scientific study of the all constituents of planets, their internal and external forms and processes. More precisely, it is the study of nature, structure and history of the planet. Earth is the home to all life, well known to the humankind. Geology, itself, is a major part of The Earth and atmospheric sciences, which were born as twins . The subject of geology encompasses all aspects including the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of a planets'( like Earth's) inter-related components and the processes that are shaping the features on the surface. Geologists are the scientists who study the origin, occurrence, distribution and utilities of all materials(metallic, non-metallic, inorganic, etc), minerals, rocks, sediments, soils, water, oil and all other inorganic natural resources. It is a very vast subject covering a wide spectrum of scientific principles and holding hundred and fifty plus scientific branches. This report enumerates and highlights most of them, in a nutshell, for all those who intends to know for planning their career path.
The document summarizes the intrusive rocks found in Kerala, India. It describes various basic and ultrabasic intrusions such as gabbro bodies along the Bavali lineament. It also discusses acidic and alkaline intrusions such as the Ezhimala Pluton granite suite and Peralimala pluton syenite. Pegmatites are also briefly covered. In summary, the document outlines the different types of intrusive rocks found in Kerala ranging from basic to acidic compositions and discusses their locations and characteristics.
'GEOHERITAGE need for Indian Activism', National workshop held at Andhra University, Dept of Geology, Visakhapatnam, 30-31 May 2013 in collaboration with INTACH and Geological Survey of India.
This document discusses basalts, which are volcanic rocks formed from the solidification of magma. It describes two main types of basalts based on their tectonic environment: mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and ocean-island basalts (OIB). MORB comes from the depleted upper mantle, while E-MORB comes from the deeper, more fertile mantle. The document also discusses how basalts are categorized based on their chemical composition and the partial melting of mantle rock that leads to the formation of basaltic magma. Finally, it outlines some industrial uses of basalt, including in fibers that are superior to other fibers for properties like thermal stability and durability.
The document discusses principles of correlation using fossils. It describes how fossils are formed from the remains of ancient organisms and preserved in sedimentary rocks. Index fossils, which have short time ranges and wide distributions, are particularly useful for correlating rock formations between different areas. The document outlines different types of fossils including molds, casts, carbonization and imprints. Fossils are important for determining the relative ages of strata and providing information about past environments and climate.
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
Interference colour and interference figuresShivam Jain
This document discusses interference colors and interference figures seen in anisotropic minerals under polarized light microscopy. It describes how interference colors are produced when minerals are rotated to their extinction positions. It also explains different types of interference figures seen in uniaxial and biaxial minerals, including centered optic axis, acute bisectrix, and how accessory plates can determine optic sign. Accessory plates like gypsum, mica, and quartz wedges are inserted to observe color changes in the interference figures that indicate whether minerals are positive or negative uniaxial and positive or negative biaxial.
This document provides an overview of geological classification of rocks. It discusses the three main categories of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma and are classified based on mineral composition and texture. Sedimentary rocks form through mechanical, chemical, or organic processes of deposition and include sandstones, limestones, and shales. Metamorphic rocks form through heat and pressure altering existing igneous and sedimentary rocks and recrystallizing their minerals. Understanding the geological origin and properties of different rock types is important for planning excavation projects.
Graywacke, also known as wacke, is a type of sandstone that is composed of sand mixed with mud. It forms in deep ocean waters through turbidity currents and submarine landslides that rapidly transport sediment short distances. Graywacke contains a higher percentage of clay and less rounded grains than typical sandstone. It displays graded bedding from larger grains settling out first during deposition from turbidity events. Fossils can occasionally be found that provide clues about the depositional environment.
El documento habla sobre los usos de la tecnología. Explica que la tecnología engloba conocimientos y hallazgos que los humanos han adaptado a su medio ambiente de acuerdo a sus necesidades. También describe cómo la tecnología ha evolucionado desde la edad de piedra y cómo ahora impacta diversas áreas como la electrónica, transporte y comunicaciones. Finalmente, señala que la tecnología y la ciencia son actividades relacionadas pero distintas del ser humano.
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
Rocks are divided into three major groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either underground to form intrusive rocks or on the surface to form extrusive rocks. The texture and structure of igneous rocks depends on factors like the cooling rate, mineral composition, and gas content of the magma. Common igneous rock features include phenocrysts, vesicles, xenoliths, columnar joints, and sills/dikes.
Most deserts have highly angular landscapes due to mechanical weathering dominating over deposition. Desert rainfall is infrequent, intense, and unreliable, causing flash flooding and erosion. The three main types of deserts are ergs, which are large seas of sand; regs with thin desert pavements of stones; and hamadas dominated by bedrock. In deserts, fluvial erosion carves steep canyons, while deposition forms alluvial fans. Aeolian processes cause erosion through deflation and abrasion, and deposition forms migrating dunes like barchans and transverse dunes. Desert terrain also includes basin and range topography with pediments and playas, and resistant rock landforms emerge like insel
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
This document summarizes information about the olivine and mica mineral groups. It discusses the crystal structure, composition, optical properties, and occurrence of common olivine minerals like forsterite and fayalite. It also summarizes the classification, crystal structure, optical properties, and common members of the mica group like muscovite, biotite, and phlogopite. Diagrams are included showing the crystal structure and optical orientation of these minerals.
Tectonites are deformed rocks whose fabric is due to systematic movement under external forces. Their fabric reflects the deformation history. Fabric includes the geometric arrangement of mineral grains, layers, and other features at a scale that includes many samples. Tectonites can have planar (S-tectonite), linear (L-tectonite), or both (L-S tectonite) fabrics indicating different strain types. Foliations like cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity are planar fabrics that cause rocks to break along parallel surfaces. Lineations indicate preferred linear fabrics, such as fold axes, boudins, and quartz rods. The orientation and interaction of foliations and lineations provide information about tect
Models and exploration methods for major gold deposit typesMYO AUNG Myanmar
Models and Exploration Methods for Major Gold Deposit Types
Robert, F.[1], Brommecker, R.[1] Bourne, B. T.[2]
, Dobak, P. J.3], McEwan, C. .J.[4],Rowe, R. R.[2], Zhou, X.
[1]
_________________________ 1. Barrick Gold Corporation, Toronto, ON
, Canada
2. Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd., Perth, WA, Australia 3. Barrick Gold Exploration Inc., Elko, NV, U.S.A 4. Compania Minera Barrick Chile Ltda., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
ABSTRACT
Gold occurs as primary commodity in a wide range of gold deposit types and settings. In the last decade, significant progress has been made in the classification, definition and understanding of the main gold deposit types. Three main clans of deposits are now broadly
defined, each including a range of specific de
posit types with common characteristics and tectonic settings. The orogenic clan has
been introduced to include vein
-
type deposits formed during crustal shortening of their host greenstone, BIF or clastic sedimentary
rock sequences. Deposits of the new red
uced intrusion-
related clan share an Au
- Bi-
Te
-
As metal signature and an association with
moderately reduced equigranular post
-
orogenic granitic intrusions. Oxidized intrusion-related deposits, including porphyry, skarn,and high-
sulfidation epithermal depo sits, are associated with high-
level, oxidized porphyry stocks in magmatic arcs. Other important deposit types include Carlin, low sulfidation pithermal, Au,rich VMS and Witwatersrand deposits. The key geology features of the ore- forming environments and the key geologic manifestations of the different deposit types form the footprints of ore systems that are targeted in exploration programs. Important progress has been made in our ability to integrate, process, and visualize increasingly complex datasets
in 2D GIS and 3D platforms. For gold exploration, important geophysical advances include airborne gravity, routine 3D inversions of potential field data, and 3D modeling of electrical data. Improved satellite -, airborne- and field-based
infrared spectroscopy has significantly improved alteration mapping around gold systems, extending the dimensions of the footprints and enhancing vectoring capabilities. Conventional geochemistry remains very important to gold exploration, while promising new techniques are
being tested. Selection of the appropriate exploration methods must be dictated by the characteristics of the targeted model, its geologic setting, and the surficial environment. Both greenfield and brownfield exploration contributed to the discovery of ma jor gold deposits (>2.5 moz Au) in the last decade but the discovery rates have declined significantly. Geologists are now better equipped than ever to face this difficult challenge, but geological understanding and quality field work were important discov ery factors and must remain the key underpinnings of exploration programs
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
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Foliation refers to planar structures in metamorphic rocks that form as a result of shearing forces and pressure during metamorphism. Foliations include the parallel alignment of platy minerals defining layers in schist and slate, as well as the flattened grains in gneiss. Foliations form due to the realignment and recrystallization of minerals under heat and pressure, and can include preferred orientations of grains, lenses of different mineral compositions, and crystallographic alignment of minerals. Foliations influence the mechanical and thermal properties of rocks and must be considered for engineering projects in foliated bedrock.
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rock formation processes including weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis. It discusses various types of weathering mechanisms and factors that influence weathering. Various sedimentary environments are also described such as fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert. Specific sedimentary structures and deposits associated with different environments are outlined.
Geology is the scientific study of the all constituents of planets, their internal and external forms and processes. More precisely, it is the study of nature, structure and history of the planet. Earth is the home to all life, well known to the humankind. Geology, itself, is a major part of The Earth and atmospheric sciences, which were born as twins . The subject of geology encompasses all aspects including the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of a planets'( like Earth's) inter-related components and the processes that are shaping the features on the surface. Geologists are the scientists who study the origin, occurrence, distribution and utilities of all materials(metallic, non-metallic, inorganic, etc), minerals, rocks, sediments, soils, water, oil and all other inorganic natural resources. It is a very vast subject covering a wide spectrum of scientific principles and holding hundred and fifty plus scientific branches. This report enumerates and highlights most of them, in a nutshell, for all those who intends to know for planning their career path.
The document summarizes the intrusive rocks found in Kerala, India. It describes various basic and ultrabasic intrusions such as gabbro bodies along the Bavali lineament. It also discusses acidic and alkaline intrusions such as the Ezhimala Pluton granite suite and Peralimala pluton syenite. Pegmatites are also briefly covered. In summary, the document outlines the different types of intrusive rocks found in Kerala ranging from basic to acidic compositions and discusses their locations and characteristics.
'GEOHERITAGE need for Indian Activism', National workshop held at Andhra University, Dept of Geology, Visakhapatnam, 30-31 May 2013 in collaboration with INTACH and Geological Survey of India.
This document discusses basalts, which are volcanic rocks formed from the solidification of magma. It describes two main types of basalts based on their tectonic environment: mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and ocean-island basalts (OIB). MORB comes from the depleted upper mantle, while E-MORB comes from the deeper, more fertile mantle. The document also discusses how basalts are categorized based on their chemical composition and the partial melting of mantle rock that leads to the formation of basaltic magma. Finally, it outlines some industrial uses of basalt, including in fibers that are superior to other fibers for properties like thermal stability and durability.
The document discusses principles of correlation using fossils. It describes how fossils are formed from the remains of ancient organisms and preserved in sedimentary rocks. Index fossils, which have short time ranges and wide distributions, are particularly useful for correlating rock formations between different areas. The document outlines different types of fossils including molds, casts, carbonization and imprints. Fossils are important for determining the relative ages of strata and providing information about past environments and climate.
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
Interference colour and interference figuresShivam Jain
This document discusses interference colors and interference figures seen in anisotropic minerals under polarized light microscopy. It describes how interference colors are produced when minerals are rotated to their extinction positions. It also explains different types of interference figures seen in uniaxial and biaxial minerals, including centered optic axis, acute bisectrix, and how accessory plates can determine optic sign. Accessory plates like gypsum, mica, and quartz wedges are inserted to observe color changes in the interference figures that indicate whether minerals are positive or negative uniaxial and positive or negative biaxial.
This document provides an overview of geological classification of rocks. It discusses the three main categories of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma and are classified based on mineral composition and texture. Sedimentary rocks form through mechanical, chemical, or organic processes of deposition and include sandstones, limestones, and shales. Metamorphic rocks form through heat and pressure altering existing igneous and sedimentary rocks and recrystallizing their minerals. Understanding the geological origin and properties of different rock types is important for planning excavation projects.
Graywacke, also known as wacke, is a type of sandstone that is composed of sand mixed with mud. It forms in deep ocean waters through turbidity currents and submarine landslides that rapidly transport sediment short distances. Graywacke contains a higher percentage of clay and less rounded grains than typical sandstone. It displays graded bedding from larger grains settling out first during deposition from turbidity events. Fossils can occasionally be found that provide clues about the depositional environment.
El documento habla sobre los usos de la tecnología. Explica que la tecnología engloba conocimientos y hallazgos que los humanos han adaptado a su medio ambiente de acuerdo a sus necesidades. También describe cómo la tecnología ha evolucionado desde la edad de piedra y cómo ahora impacta diversas áreas como la electrónica, transporte y comunicaciones. Finalmente, señala que la tecnología y la ciencia son actividades relacionadas pero distintas del ser humano.
Este documento describe la evolución de los lenguajes de marcado para la visualización de contenidos, incluyendo SGML, HTML y XML. Explica cómo SGML dio origen a HTML y cómo XML fue desarrollado para superar las limitaciones de HTML al tiempo que mantiene la compatibilidad con SGML. También describe las hojas de estilo como una forma de separar la estructura del contenido de la presentación visual, mejorando el control sobre el diseño de páginas web.
Este documento presenta las diferentes herramientas y opciones disponibles en una aplicación de presentaciones, incluyendo cómo agregar y modificar diapositivas, estilos de texto y objetos, insertar y editar imágenes, y agregar y modificar formas.
Este documento establece normas generales para la evaluación, acreditación, promoción y certificación en la educación básica en México. Se define la evaluación como un proceso continuo que permite al docente orientar a los alumnos y asignar calificaciones. Se establece que la evaluación en preescolar será cualitativa y en primaria y secundaria incluirá una escala de calificación numérica de 5 a 10. También se especifican los momentos para comunicar resultados a los alumnos y padres de familia.
Este documento describe cómo automatizar operaciones en documentos electrónicos, incluida la manipulación de macros, hipervínculos y plantillas. Explica cómo grabar, ejecutar y modificar macros, así como crear, usar y eliminar hipervínculos entre documentos. También cubre cómo utilizar plantillas para crear documentos de forma consistente y generar correspondencia mediante la combinación de datos maestros y plantillas.
El documento critica las creencias comunes sobre el amor y la felicidad que se nos inculcan desde pequeños, como que el gran amor llega solo una vez antes de los 30, o que cada persona es la mitad de una pareja. En realidad, el amor se genera espontáneamente y cada uno nace completo. También cuestiona la idea de que casarse es obligatorio o que solo hay una fórmula para ser feliz, señalando que estas creencias frustran a las personas y son equivocadas. Cada uno debe descubrir por sí mismo qué es lo que le hace fel
El documento proporciona instrucciones para organizar y codificar un almacén de manera eficiente, incluyendo demarcar zonas y pasillos con pintura amarilla, zonificar los almacenes, y codificar las estanterías.
El documento propone diseñar y construir una placa solar de 50cm x 50cm para calentar agua usando materiales comunes como aglomerado, panel y cartón. Se probó un diseño con un tubo de PVC negro formando un circuito cerrado de agua que elevó la temperatura de 1 litro de agua de 20°C a 40°C en media hora aprovechando la energía solar en un día soleado de marzo.
Visualización de Redes: Herramientas y Técnicas para la Creación y Evaluación...Yessenia I. Martínez M.
Este documento aborda las diferentes técnicas para la visualización de redes, a fin de determinar las ventajas y desventajas de su aplicación en el análisis y representación visual de las redes en general.
Para llevar a cabo esta evaluación, las técnicas y herramientas utilizadas estarán enfocadas en la visualización de redes.
Para la evaluación de redes se abordarán las herramientas: IGraph, Java Universal Network/Graph, Gephi, Pajek y para el análisis de las redes las técnicas de grafos, las matrices y las hiperbólicas.
El documento describe cómo el Monte Everest se ha convertido en un "circo" debido a la gran cantidad de personas que intentan alcanzar su cumbre cada año, lo que ha creado riesgos para la seguridad. Describe los peligros mortales de la "zona de muerte", donde hay muy poco oxígeno, y cómo los escaladores a menudo se ven obligados a abandonar a compañeros enfermos o heridos debido al riesgo para sus propias vidas. También explica cómo los cuerpos de los escaladores fallecidos se han acumulado
El documento describe cómo el Monte Everest se ha convertido en un "circo" debido a la gran cantidad de personas que intentan alcanzar la cima cada año, lo que ha creado riesgos significativos para la salud y la seguridad. La "zona de muerte" por encima de los 8,000 metros contiene muy poco oxígeno y los escaladores enfrentan peligros como el mal de altura, la congelación y las grietas ocultas. Además, la naturaleza comercializada de las expediciones y la acumulación de cad
El documento describe cómo el Monte Everest se ha convertido en un "circo" debido a la gran cantidad de personas que intentan alcanzar la cima cada año, lo que ha creado riesgos significativos para la salud y la seguridad. La "zona de la muerte" por encima de los 8000 metros carece de oxígeno suficiente para sustentar la vida, y los escaladores a menudo se ven obligados a abandonar a compañeros enfermos o heridos. Además, decenas de cadáveres permanecen visibles a lo largo de las rutas
El documento describe cómo el Monte Everest se ha convertido en un "circo" debido a la gran afluencia de turistas con poco entrenamiento que intentan alcanzar la cumbre. Esto ha dado lugar a atascos mortales, cadáveres que permanecen a lo largo de las rutas y montañeros que ignoran a otros en peligro mortal para alcanzar su objetivo. El documento también detalla varios casos trágicos donde montañeros murieron debido a la falta de asistencia en la "zona de muerte", donde los niveles de oxígeno son
El documento describe cómo el Everest se ha convertido en un "circo" debido a la gran cantidad de personas que intentan alcanzar la cumbre cada año, lo que ha dado lugar a problemas de seguridad. Menciona varios accidentes mortales donde los escaladores no pudieron recibir ayuda a tiempo en la "zona de muerte" debido a la falta de oxígeno y las condiciones extremas. También describe cómo los cuerpos de los que han muerto en el Everest permanecen a lo largo de las rutas como advertencia para los futuros escaladores.
El documento describe cómo el Everest se ha convertido en un circo debido a la gran afluencia de turistas y alpinistas con poco entrenamiento que intentan alcanzar la cumbre, poniendo en peligro sus vidas y las de otros debido a la falta de oxígeno y condiciones extremas. Relata varios accidentes mortales donde escaladores han fallecido y sus cuerpos permanecen en la montaña como advertencia de los peligros.
El documento describe cómo el Monte Everest se ha convertido en un "circo" debido a la explotación comercial y el turismo masivo. Más de 200 escaladores han muerto intentando alcanzar la cima, con 40 cadáveres visibles que los escaladores usan como puntos de referencia. El documento también describe incidentes como el de 1996 cuando 15 personas murieron en una tormenta, y el caso de David Sharp en 2006, a quien 40 escaladores pasaron de largo mientras yacía moribundo.
El monte Everest es la montaña más alta del planeta Tierra, con una altura de 8848 metros (29 029 pies) sobre el nivel del mar.1 Está localizada en el continente asiático, en la cordillera del Himalaya, concretamente en la subcordillera de Mahalangur Himal; marca la frontera entre China y Nepal. El macizo incluye los picos vecinos Lhotse, 8516 m (27 940 pies); Nuptse, 7855 m (25 771 pies) y Changtse, 7580 m (24 870 pies).
El documento resume los 14 ochomiles más altos del mundo, incluyendo su nombre, significado, ubicación, primeras ascensiones y características. Los ochomiles son montañas con una altura por encima de los 8,000 metros y fueron escalados por primera vez entre 1950 y 1958 por expediciones de diferentes nacionalidades. El Everest, con 8,848 metros, es la montaña más alta del mundo y fue coronada por primera vez en 1953 por Edmund Hillary y Tenzing Norgay.
El documento resume los 14 ochomiles más altos del mundo, incluyendo su nombre, significado, ubicación, primeras ascensiones y características. Los ochomiles son montañas con una altura por encima de los 8,000 metros y fueron escalados por primera vez entre 1950 y 1958 por expediciones de diferentes nacionalidades. El Everest, con 8,848 metros, es la montaña más alta del mundo y fue coronada por primera vez en 1953 por Edmund Hillary y Tenzing Norgay.
Este documento presenta resúmenes breves de los 14 ochomiles, las montañas más altas del mundo con más de 8,000 metros de altitud. Cada resumen incluye el nombre de la montaña, su significado, ubicación, características destacadas y la primera expedición que logró alcanzar la cumbre. Las montañas se presentan ordenadas de menor a mayor altitud.
Este documento presenta resúmenes breves de los 14 ochomiles, las montañas más altas del mundo con más de 8,000 metros de altitud. Cada resumen incluye el nombre de la montaña, su significado, ubicación, características destacadas y la primera expedición que logró alcanzar la cumbre. Las montañas se presentan ordenadas de menor a mayor altitud.
Este documento presenta resúmenes breves de los 14 ochomiles, las montañas más altas del mundo con más de 8,000 metros de altitud. Cada resumen incluye el nombre de la montaña, su significado, ubicación, características destacadas y la primera expedición que logró alcanzar la cumbre. Las montañas se presentan ordenadas de menor a mayor altitud.
El rappel es una técnica de descenso común en deportes de montaña como la escalada en roca o hielo y el alpinismo. Se usa para descender desde lo alto de montañas o construcciones deslizándose por una cuerda. El rappel se originó en los Alpes franceses en la década de 1870 y desde entonces se han desarrollado diversos métodos y equipos para practicarlo de forma segura. Actualmente es usado no solo en deportes de montaña sino también por bomberos, policía y militares.
1. ¿Por qué se dice que el Everest se ha convertido en un circo? El Everest es la cumbre más alta del mundo con 8.848 metros sobre el nivel del mar, localizado al noroeste de la frontera entre Nepal y el Tibet ocupado por China. Para atacar la cima del Everest hay numerosas vías abiertas, las más comunes son la vía sur desde Nepal, que es la más fácil y la vía norte desde el Tibet. Todas ellas tienen una cosa en común; a partir de los 8.000 metros hay que atravesar la llamada “zona muerta”.
2. La zona muerta es aquella donde la cantidad de oxigeno en el aire no es suficiente para sostener ninguna forma de vida. El riesgo de sufrir “mal de altura” a causa de la falta de oxígeno, aparece a partir de los 2.400 metros. La hipoxia ó falta de oxigeno inicial puede provocar alucinaciones o incluso euforia , que no permiten al afectado ser consciente de su situación física real. Según los médicos, en la zona muerta del Everest, una vez iniciados los síntomas, un individuo tiene entre 1 y 2 minutos de plenas facultades para paliar su situación. Los expertos en alta montaña dicen que los individuos que se vienen abajo lo hacen en unos 20-25 minutos. En la foto, Marco Epis atendido por el equipo de Sergey Kofanov tras sufrir mal de altura.
3. Los peligros del Everest; la zona muerta, mal de altura, congelación y grietas. Para evitarlos, los escaladores realizan periodos de aclimatación. Al mal de altura hay que sumar el clima extremo del Everest que supone riesgo por congelación e hipotermia permanente. Por último, otro riesgo importante son las grietas ocultas por la nieve que se forman al partirse los estratos de hielo en el suelo.
4. La explotación turística del Everest. El desafío se ha convertido en un clásico entre empresarios y altos directivos con poder adquisitivo, Otro clásico, más orientado a escaladores profesionales, es intentar batir algún record sin sentido. Para acceder a la cumbre del Everest se parte desde el campamento base y se atraviesan varios campamentos de paso numerados de menor a mayor según su cercanía a la cumbre. En qué condiciones se realiza la ascensión y establecimiento de estos campamentos es una cuestión de dinero , del viaje contratado o de los planteamientos que siga el equipo. En la imagen, la ruta sur, la zona muerta empieza justo al salir del campamento 4.
5. El gobierno de Nepal cobra 25.000 dólares US por cabeza por un permiso para realizar la subida y después cada escalador o equipo de escaladores se organizan como crean conveniente. En la cumbre del Everest no se pierde nadie . Por las rutas más comunes se accede a ella caminando por un risco en el que hay colocada una cuerda guía y una de dos; o sigues la cuerda o te despeñas ladera abajo a un abismo del que sería prácticamente imposible salir. Técnicamente no tiene ninguna dificultad aunque hay que escalar varias paredes pequeñas, una por la ruta sur y dos por la ruta norte llamadas escalones. En la foto, el tramo final del risco por la ruta sur.
6. No obstante, desde el momento en el que se accede a la zona muerta – y antes también – el escalador está poniendo su vida en serio peligro. Si un individuo se va al suelo y no es capaz de volver a levantarse como para salir por su propio pie, es imposible que un grupo de escaladores lo arrastren hasta sacarlo fuera de la zona muerta. Si lo intentasen se jugarían sus propias vidas. A esas alturas, por cada paso que se da, un montañero entrenado puede necesitar realizar tres respiraciones, el corazón se acelera incluso en reposo para suministrar oxigeno con más frecuencia debido a su escasez y el cuerpo va casi al límite cargando con el soporte vital necesario; ropa, botellas de oxigeno o medicamentos. En la imagen, la ruta norte.
7. Los helicópteros comunes no pueden ascender a tanta altitud. El único helicóptero que ha logrado llegar a la cumbre del Everest fue un Eurocopter AS350 preparado en el año 2005. Logró mantenerse estable unos minutos en la cima pero no llegó a posarse del todo porque se hundiría en la nieve y nunca apagó el motor. Desde un punto de vista económico, el precio del helicóptero en sí es tremendo . Mantener una base de helicópteros en el campo base sería igualmente poco realista. En la foto, un helicóptero de fabricación rusa que se accidentó en el 2003 cuando trataba de aterrizar en el campamento base. Dos de sus nueve ocupantes murieron.
8. Si un escalador no puede levantarse afectado por mal de altura, lo único que se puede hacer es darle una asistencia médica muy limitada , pero la única solución eficaz es descender, el tiempo que se puede permanecer en la zona muerta es limitado así que si el afectado no logra levantarse, sus compañeros o rescatadores se verán obligados a abandonarlo. Si el riesgo que supone intentar mover a un enfermo en la zona muerta hace que sea una tarea inviable, mover un cadáver es algo que casi nadie se plantea. Cuando alguien fallece, su cuerpo queda en el mismo punto donde cayó y cuando se enfría, se congela petrificándose . Este fue el caso de Peter Boardman, que desapareció en 1982 intentando la complicada ruta nor-noroeste. Fue encontrado 10 años después sentado, como si estuviera durmiendo.
9. Se calcula que atacando la cima del Everest han muerto más de 200 escaladores, 150 nunca se han encontrado y los accesos a la cima están plagados de cadáveres visibles – más de 40 – que han quedado al aire en el punto exacto donde cayeron, por lo que los escaladores que suben, van sorteando cuerpos que han empezado a bautizar con nombres porque los usan como puntos de referencia en su ascensión.
10. El más famoso y uno de los primeros que se ven es “el saludador” . Le apodaron así porque el cadáver quedó petrificado con un gesto de saludar con las brazos. No hay confirmación pero, por la postura, es posible que sea este.
11. El segundo cuerpo más famoso es el de “botas verdes” , llamado así por el vistoso color fosforito del calzado que llevaba. “Botas verdes” era Tsewang Paljor, pereció por el frío durante el desastre de 1996. El 11 de Mayo de ese año, el más mortífero en la historia de la montaña, ascendía junto a otros compañeros cuando fueron sorprendidos por una fuerte ventisca. Seis miembros del equipo decidieron abortar el intento pero Paljor siguió adelante con dos compañeros. Su cuerpo fue encontrado después postrado en la llamada “cueva de roca” . Sus restos se hicieron famosos porque todo el mundo que accede por la ruta sur, tenía que pasar al lado de él a menos de un metro, casi apartándose para sortearlo, siguiendo las cuerdas que se ven en la foto.
12. El llamado “desastre de 1996″ , se cobró 15 vidas en un solo día en el que 33 montañeros atacaban la cima por la ruta sur provocándose un atasco en la única pared que hay que escalar, el “Hillary Step”, un “overbooking” en pleno Everest. Para atacar la cima por la ruta sur se sale a medía noche del campamento 4 y se tardan entre 10 y 12 horas en ascender los 1000 metros restantes, considerándose las dos de la tarde como límite de hora seguro para hacer cumbre . Si se llega más tarde, se corre el riesgo de perecer al frío de la noche o caer por la ladera al descender. La mayoría de los accidentes se producen en el descenso. El atasco en el escalón, provocó retrasos irreparables. Se levantó una fuerte ventisca limitando la visibilidad , lo que impidió que muchos de los que descendían encontrasen el camino de regreso y murieran de frío. Los intentos de rescate solo lograron traer de vuelta a 4 personas. Aunque parezca un parque de atracciones, esto es una expedición haciendo cola para acceder a la cima del Everest por la ruta sur en el año 2009.
13. Al lado de botas verdes quedó David Sharp , que el 15 de Mayo del 2006 realizaba su tercer ataque a la cumbre. Había lanzado varias acometidas en solitario desde el campamento base, sin oxigeno, sin sherpa, sin guía, sin radio, sin medicamentos, sin ningún otro soporte vital. Subía con lo puesto, puede que con la intención de batir algún record. Es el caso que más escándalo e indignación ha causado entre la comunidad alpinista, tal vez por ser el que mejor escenifica el circo que hay montado en torno al Everest. En su descenso se vino abajo y se sentó al lado de botas verdes para intentar recobrar fuelle . Por delante de David Sharp llegaron a pasar de largo unos 40 escaladores sin pararse, hasta que lo encontró la expedición Brice liderada por Mark Inglis, un especialista que había perdido las dos piernas por congelación en 1982 y que ahora utilizaba prótesis metálicas. A la izquierda David Sharp y a la derecha Mark Inglis.
14. Sharp todavía respiraba e Inglis pidió instrucciones por radio a su director en el campamento base, Russell Brice, que le ordenó continuar hacia la cumbre y, en todo caso, prestarle ayuda al descender después. Este hecho ejemplifica uno de los aspectos más criticados del Everest; la política que siguen los escaladores es una especie de sálvese quien pueda en la que solo priman los intereses comerciales o de equipo. Si un cliente contrata a un guía y unos sherpas para subir, está pagando por hacer cima y no por rescatar a terceras personas. Además los guías no siempre tienen plena potestad para tomar decisiones. En ocasiones, como en este caso, puede haber un director de equipo en el campamento base que está ordenando no detenerse para atender accidentados y seguir hacía la cumbre. Nueve horas después , el guía Jamie McGuinness y el Sherpa Dawa, tras hacer cumbre, intentaron levantar a un Sharp severamente dañado por las congelaciones dándole oxígeno pero no lo consiguieron y se vieron obligados a abandonarlo. Los miembros de la expedición Brice llevaban cámaras personales en sus cascos, recogiendo en vídeo una breve conversación con Sharp antes de morir; “My name is David Sharp and I am with Asian Trekking”.
15. Francys Arsentiev aspiraba a convertirse en la primera mujer en hacer cima sin oxigeno y el 22 de Mayo de 1998 logró su objetivo junto a su marido Sergei Arsentiev . Durante el descenso la pareja se separó. Sergei llegó al campamento y su mujer no había regresado. Volvió a buscarla, una decisión que le condenaba de inmediato. El 23 una expedición encontró a Francys, semiinconsciente con síntomas de congelación. Intentaron arrastrarla pero resultó imposible . En el regreso se cruzaron con Sergei que subía al rescate, siendo la última vez que fue visto con vida. El 24, dos experimentados escaladores, Ian Woodall y Cathy O’Dowd , se toparon con Francys muerta. El piolet y la cuerda de Sergei estaban cerca pero no había ni rastro de él. A la izquierda Arsentiev y a la derecha Cathy O’Dowd.
16. Cathy O’Dowd relató que Francys no dejaba de repetir entre sollozos que no la abandonasen . Tras darle asistencia durante más de una hora sin obtener resultados, Cathy y Ian se vieron obligados a abandonarla allí mismo, escuchando sus suplicas mientras se alejaban. Las palabras de despedida debieron ser tremendas. Francys murió sola congelándose lentamente ya que la hipoxia no la estaba matando debido al oxígeno que le habían dado, hecho que solo sirvió para prolongar su largo calvario. A Sergei lo encontró un año después la expedición “Mallory and Irvine”, un proyecto que intentaba localizar los cuerpos de los famosos escaladores. Sergei se había precipitado por la ladera a pocos metros de alcanzar a su mujer. Cathy O’Dowd ya había tenido una experiencia similar . Cuando descendía de su primera cumbre, se encontró con Bruce Herrod, un escalador que a pesar de tener fama de ser muy duro en las subidas, ascendía muy lentamente. Al hablar con él, el equipo de Cathy se dió cuenta de que no estaba bien y, además, era demasiado tarde para seguir subiendo pero no lograron convencer a Herrod, afectado por la euforia que provoca la hipoxia, de que abortase su tentativa …
17. … Herrod hizo cima pasadas las 5 de la tarde , se autorretrató en la cumbre y llamó por radio al campamento base donde todos los allí presentes, incluida su mujer, le instaron a bajar inmediatamente, conscientes de que ya era un cadáver. Dos horas después de tomada la foto desapareció. Posteriormente se recuperó la cámara y su mujer reveló la imagen que le costó la vida.
18. Este es otro caso común en el Everest, si alguien se siente inconmensurable subiendo y no hay manera de convencerle de que cancele su intento, es imposible obligarle a regresar . No se puede llegar a las manos a 8.000 metros de altura.
19. Más sorprendente resulta el caso de Lincoln Hall, bautizado como el muerto viviente del Everest. El 25 Mayo del 2006 descendía de la cumbre cuando aquejado de mal de altura acusó serias alucinaciones. Los sherpas intentaron atenderle hasta que se quedaron sin suministros y el director del equipo, Alexander Abramov, les ordenó regresar abandonando a Hall. Cuando llegaron al campamento se comunicó a la prensa el fallecimiento de su compañero. Sin embargo, a las 7 de la mañana del día siguiente, un equipo liderado por Dan Mazur encontró a Hall a más de 8.000 metros, sentado con la piernas cruzadas, sin guantes, con el mono bajado hasta la cintura y el torso desnudo. Estaba cambiándose de camiseta. No tenía ni gorro, ni gafas, ni mascara de oxigeno o botellas, ni saco de dormir, ni mantas, ni cantimplora de agua. Cuando llegaron hasta él tan solo espetó “les sorprenderá verme por aquí”. Mazur tomó esta foto de Hall poco después de encontrarlo cerca de la cima. Alucinando, sonreía a pesar de estar al borde de perder todos los dedos de pies y manos. Mazur canceló su acometida e inmediatamente iniciaron las labores de rescate. Abramov envió a 12 sherpas que se unieron a los 4 componentes del otro equipo, consiguiendo que Lincoln bajase andando hasta el campamento, donde fue tratado de edema cerebral y se recuperó.
20. Los cuerpos que quedan en los collados del Everest no terminan cubiertos por la nieve, permaneciendo visibles durante décadas . Tal vez sea porque las fuertes ventiscas limpian la nieve que cae sobre ellos antes de que llegue a cuajar o puede que los colores oscuros de la ropa atraigan mejor la luz, ofreciendo suficiente calor como para que no cuaje. El viento hace que en una de las caras del Everest no haya nieve dejando la superficie de roca negra al descubierto. Aunque parezca increíble, esto es un cadáver que está en medio del campamento 3, los escaladores instalan las tiendas y acampan como si fuera parte del paisaje.
21. En el año 2007 Ian Woodall realizó la expedición “Tao del Everest” , que pretendía empujar por la ladera el cadaver de Francys Arsentiev y el de Green Boots para devolver el buen kharma a la montaña. Solo lograron alcanzar el de Arsentiev y seguramente el proyecto de Woodall tendrá lógica desde su perspectiva, pero no deja de ser toda una temeridad poner la vida en riesgo para empujar un cadáver, amén de toda una hipocresía ya que pretende ocultar una realidad inherente a esa montaña, fruto en gran medida de su sobre-explotación comercial.
22. Por esto, y por otras cosas de esta índole, se dice que el Everest se ha convertido en un circo.