1. Training & Development Needs Analysis
Training

2. Overview
Models of Learning
– Reinforcement Theories
– Cybernetic & Information Theories
– Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving
– Experiential Learning Cycle
The ‘learner’ and the organisation’ : transfer
Model of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) :
individual and organisational levels of
analysis
Special training and development needs :
diversity management

3. Learning
‘Training and developmental activities are designed to
bring about changes in behaviour’
Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)
Learning is ‘a relatively permanent change in behaviour
that occurs as a result of practice or experience’
Bass & Vaughan (1966)
How do we learn ? Psychological theories...

4. Reinforcement Theories
Pavlov (1904) ‘Classical Conditioning’ -
making dogs dribble
Skinner (1965) ‘Operant Conditioning’ -
teaching pigeons ‘ping-pong’
Watson & Rayner (1920) ‘little Albert’
Nord (1969) application of Skinner’s
‘positive reinforcement’ principles to
org./mgmt practices
N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?

5. Cybernetic & Information Theories
How information is received and monitored (‘’human
thermostats’’ - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)
Power Source Monitoring Process
(muscular action) (receipt of ‘cues’ through
the senses)
Feedback
Skills Analysis - what ‘cues’ or ‘stimuli’ an experienced
worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : ‘hunt & peck’)

6. Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving
Reflect the way in which we learn to
recognise and define problems or
experiment to find solutions
– trial & error
– deductive reasoning
– information seeking
Kohler (1973) Theory of ‘Insight Learning’ or
‘Discovery Learning’ (e.g. Chimps, bananas
and sticks or Archimedes ‘Eureka!!’)

7. Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning
8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each
building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore
act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)
– Signal Learning (classical conditioning)
– Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning)
– Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units)
– Verbal Association (learning ‘verbal’ chains)
– Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli)
– Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp)
– Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if ‘A’ then ‘B’)
– Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)

8. Experiential Learning
Kolb (1974) : ‘Learning Cycle’
Concrete
Testing experience Observations
implications of & Reflections
concepts in new
situations Formation of
abstract concepts
& generalisations
Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : ‘Learning Styles’
– activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with
implementation
– reflector : ponder experiences, cautious, ‘back-seat’, ‘bigger
picture’
– theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical,
hierarchical
– pragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice

9. The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (I)
Learner Motivation
– Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in
learning : achievement motivation, anxiety, approval,
curiosity, acquisitiveness
Knowledge of results (feedback)
– form of reinforcement
– Extrinsic KR
– Intrinsic KR
– Learning curves & plateau
Attitude formation & change
– predispose learners to action
– having ‘harmonious attitudes’ (Festinger’s concept of
cognitive dissonance, 1957)
– group discussion, providing new information

10. The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (II)
Age
– less brain cells, speeded performance
declines
– short-term memory deteriorates (increased
errors in cognitively complex tasks)
– Welford (1962) older less able to cope with
large amounts of information and
– vocab. and comprehension increase
(reasoning and numerical ability test scores
decreased)
– Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in
originally high scorers.
– Stimulation
– Education & Training offset decline in
abilities

11. Transfer
‘Training transfer occurs when new learning is used
in new settings beyond those employed for training
purposes’ (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998)
Positive Learning Transfer
– ‘when learning that has already taken place on one task
assists later learning on another’
– vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for
another (e.g. maths to statistics)
– lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of
stimulus requires the same response (e.g. flight simulators)
– N.B. ‘On-’ vs ‘Off-the-job’ Training
Negative Transfer
– ‘when an old learning or past experience can hinder
performance on a new task; when the same stimuli requires
a different response’ (e.g. driving on right hand side)

12. Factors that assist Transfer
Individual
Understanding of general principles
– facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical
and psychological ‘fidelity’
Overlearning
– practising beyond the level of minimum
competence
Association
– getting the trainee to associate new learning with
other, previous, learning.
Organisational
Supportive culture ?
Congruent norms/values/attitudes

13. Goldstein (1986, 1991, 1993)
Model of Training Needs Analysis
Stage One
Establish organisation’s commitment and support
Stage Two
Organisational Analysis
Stage Three
Requirement Analysis
Stage Four
‘Needs Assessment’ - Task & KSA analysis of training needs
Stage Five
‘Person Analysis’
Stage Six
Collate data to input to, and design of, training environment
and training evaluation

14. Stage One : Establishing Organisational
Commitment and Support
Identify whose co-operation is needed, i.e.
management, workers, clients, other stakeholders.
‘Project Parameters’ : rationale of approach(es), time
needed, numbers of people involved, admin. (&
other) support needed.
Glaser & Taylor (1973)
– collaborative approach
– highly motivated, ‘team-like’ interface
– early and active contacts between parties
Goldstein (1993) advocates a ‘liaison team’

15. Stage Two : Organisational Analysis
of Training Needs
Central Issue = ‘how well is the organisation doing?’
N.B. Organisation does not have to be underperforming
to need development
Importance of the ‘transfer’ climate : system-wide
factors that may support/undermine training
Goldstein (1993) : 4 stages of OA
– Specify training goals (3 types)
– Determine training climate
– Identify legal constraints (vertical and horizontal)
– Determine resources available

16. Stage Three : Requirement Analysis
Goldstein (1993) : 6 stages
determine target job to be assessed
identify how needs assessment data best collected
– interviews, observations, surveys, tests, records, SME’s,
focus groups, work samples, etc.
determine who is going to provide necessary info
ascertain key points of contact and their
responsibilities
anticipate problems and difficulties
develop a TNA protocol

17. Stage Four : Needs Assessment
Task Analysis
TA for TNA should provide a job specification
(KSA’s/competencies required). Training spec.
derived from difference between employees’ current
and ideal levels
Reid & Barrington (1997) : 3 main TNA TA
approaches (task identification & task element
analysis)
– Comprehensive Approach
– Key Task Analysis
– Problem-Centred Approach
Task fidelity (physical and psychological)
– e.g. stages and ‘key points analysis’, manual skills analysis,
job learning analysis, faults analysis, benchmarking, Critical
Incidents Technique.

18. Stage Five : Person Analysis
Who in the organisation needs training
What kind of training is needed
KSA deficits - must have suitable performance
criteria
– performance appraisal ratings
– 360-feedback ratings
– KSA’s of new recruits
– Development Centre ratings
– self-assessments

19. Special Training Needs
Retraining
– learning how to learn
– the ageing workforce
Managing Diversity
– cross-cultural training (increasing globalisation, multi-cultural
societies)
– Equal Opportunities legislation
Training the Unemployed
– long-term unemployed (more than 27 weeks continuously)
– causes of long-term unemployment (physical, psychological
& environmental factors)