Sesion 4 Control De Precios Y Cantidades, Impuestos, Bienes Publicos Y Los Recursos Comunes Y Externalidades
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Control de precios y cantidades, impuestos, bienes públicos y los recursos comunes y externalidades
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Sesion 4 Control De Precios Y Cantidades, Impuestos, Bienes Publicos Y Los Recursos Comunes Y Externalidades
- 1. Control de precios y cantidades, impuestos, bienes públicos y los recursos comunes y externalidades
- 2. Preguntas y reflexiones sobre la sesión anterior.
- 5. D 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 9 8 $25 24 21 16 9 Cantidad Ingreso total 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 9 8 $10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cantidad Precio Demanda elástica: mayores precios menores ingresos Elástica Inelástica Elasticidad unitaria Demanda inelástica: mayores precios mayores ingresos $0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 9 16 21 24 25 24 21 16 9 0 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Ingreso Total Cantidad demandada Plan de demanda e ingresos total para una curva de demanda lineal Precio La elasticidad precio de la demanda cambia a lo largo de la curva de demanda
- 6. Control de precios y cantidades
- 10. El mercado de alquiler en ausencia de controles precios $1,400 1,300 1,200 1,100 1,000 900 800 700 600 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Cantidad ofrecida Cantidad demandada Renta mensual (apartamento) Cantidad de apartamentos (millones) 1.6 1.7 0 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.4 $1,400 1,300 1,200 1,100 1,000 900 800 700 600 Cantidad de apartamentos Renta mensual por apartamento D E S
- 11. Los efectos de un precio máximo 1.6 0 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 $1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 Cantidad de apartamentos (millones) Renta mensual (por apartamento) D S E B A Escasez de apartamentos de alquiler de 400,000 apartamentos, provocada por el precio máximo. Precio máximo
- 15. El mercado de mantequilla en ausencia de regulación gubernamental $1.40 $ 1.30 $ 1.20 $ 1.10 $ 1.00 $ 0.90 $ 0.80 $ 0.70 $ 0.60 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 Cantidad de mantequilla (millones de libras) Precio (por libra) Cantidad ofertada Cantidad demandada Cantidad (millones de libras ) 6 7 0 8 9 10 11 13 12 14 $1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 Precio (por libra) D S E
- 16. Los efectos de un precio mínimo 6 0 8 9 10 12 14 $1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 D S E B A Excedente de 3 millones de Kilos de mantequilla provocado por un precio mínimo Precio mínimo Cantidad (millones de libras) Precio (por libra)
- 19. Mercado de viajes en taxi en Nueva York en ausencia de controles gubernamentales 6 7 9 0 8 10 11 13 12 14 $7.00 6.50 6.00 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 D S E Cantidad de viajes (millones por año) Precio (por viaje) $7.00 $ 6.50 $ 6.00 $ 5.50 $ 5.00 $ 4.50 $ 4.00 $ 3.50 $ 3.00 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cantidad de viajes (millones por año) Tarifa (por viaje) Cantidad ofertada Cantidad demandada
- 20. Efecto de una cuota sobre el mercado de viajes en taxi $7.00 $ 6.50 $ 6.00 $ 5.50 $ 5.00 $ 4.50 $ 4.00 $ 3.50 $ 3.00 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cantidad de viajes (millones por año) Tarifa (por viaje) Cantidad ofertada Cantidad demandada A B 6 7 0 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 $7.00 6.50 6.00 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 D S E Oportunidades perdidas Diferencial cuota Cantidad de viajes (millones por año) Tarifa (por viaje)
- 22. Los impuestos
- 25. Impuesto sobre el vendedor S 1 S 2 A B 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 $140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Cantidad de habitaciones Precio D E Impuesto = $40 por habitación La curva de oferta se desplaza hacia arriba en la cantidad del impuesto
- 26. Impuesto sobre el comprador. A B 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 $140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Cantidad de habitaciones E S D 2 D 1 Impuesto = $40 por habitación La curva de demanda se desplaza hacia abajo en la cantidad del impuesto Precio
- 28. La elasticidad y los impuestos. D S $2.95 2.00 1.95 Precio de la gasolina (por litro) 0 Cantidad de gasolina El gravamen recae principalmente en el consumidor Impuesto = $1 por litro Cuando la elasticidad precio de la demanda es baja y la elasticidad precio de la oferta es elevada, el gravamen del impuesto recae principalmente sobre los consumidores.
- 29. La elasticidad y los impuestos D S $6.50 6.00 1.50 Precio hora de una plaza de aparcamiento 0 Cantidad de plazas de aparcamiento El gravamen recae principalmente sobre los productores Impuesto = $5 por hora de aparcamiento Cuando la elasticidad precio de la demanda es alto y la elasticidad precio de la oferta bajo, el gravamen del impuesto recae mayoritariamente sobre el vendedor.
- 30. Recaudación de un impuesto S B 6 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 $140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Cantidad de habitaciones D E Área = recaudación del impuesto Impuesto = $40 por habitación A Precio de una habitación de hotel La recaudación es: $40 por habitación × 5,000 habitaciones = $200,000
- 31. Los bienes públicos y los recursos comunes
- 36. No Excluyentes Excluyentes Rival en consumo No rival en consumo Bienes privados Artificialmente escasos Bienes públicos Recursos Comunes
- 37. No Excluyentes Excluyentes Rival en consumo No rival en consumo Bienes privados • Trigo • Accesorios para el baño Artificialmente escasos • Películas de pago • Programa de ordenador Bienes públicos • Sanidad pública • Defensa nacional Recursos Comunes • Agua limpia • Biodiversidad
- 48. Cantidad de contaminación socialmente óptima. Coste marginal social, ingreso marginal social. Cantidad de emisiones contaminantes (toneladas) Q OPT 0 $200 Coste marginal social de la contaminación O Cantidad de contaminación socialmente óptima Punto socialmente óptimo Ingreso marginal social de la contaminación
- 50. Por qué produce demasiada contaminación una economía de mercado Q eq T Qh Qopt 0 $400 300 200 100 O Ingreso marginal social correspondiente a Qeq Cantidad de contaminación determinada por el mercado El resultado del mercado es ineficiente: el coste marginal social de la contaminación es mayor que el ingreso marginal social Coste social marginal, ingreso social marginal Cantidad de emisiones contaminantes (toneladas ) Cantidad de contaminación socialmente óptima Impuesto pigouviano óptimo sobre la contaminación Coste marginal social correspondiente a Qeq
- 54. Externalidades negativas. Impuestos a la producción. Ej. Canon a la cría de cerdos Cte Mg Social S 1 D Q Opt 1 PMkt Q S D Q Opt Q E E O O (a) Externalidad negativa (b) Impuesto óptimo Precio Cantidad Precio Cantidad Coste externo Precio que pagan los consumidores impuesto incluido Impuesto óptimo Precio que reciben los productores después de impuestos Mkt Mkt PCMgS P Opt
- 55. El consumo de tabaco genera importantes problemas de salud que conllevan un elevado coste de atención para la sanidad pública. El fumador, a la hora de tomar sus decisiones de compra, no tiene en cuenta este coste que tendrá que ser asumido por toda la sociedad. Por ello, el Estado puede intervenir fijando un impuesto sobre la cajetilla. La curva de demanda se desplazará hacia abajo. O D D E (a) Externalidad negativas Q 1 P 1 P 2 Q 2 O Precio Impuesto Cantidad 1 2 Externalidades negativas .Impuestos al consumo. Ej.Impuesto al consumo de tabaco
- 57. Externalidades positivas . Subvenciones al consumo. Ej. Subvención a la instalación de placas solares O D D O (a) Externalidad positiva Precio Q Opt P Opt P Mkt Q Mkt O D O Cantidad Q Opt Q Mkt (b) Subsidio pigouviano óptimo E E Precio Precio de los productores con el subsidio Subsidio pigouviano óptimo Precio de los consumidores con el subsidio Beneficio externo Cantidad 2 1 PBMgS
- 59. Externalidades positivas. Subvención a la formación en las empresas. O1 O 2 D Q 1 2 P Q O E (a) Externalidad positiva Precio Cantidad Subvención 2 Si una empresa prepara a sus empleados invirtiendo en formación, esto genera una externalidad positiva: esta formación beneficia al trabajador y a la empresa mientras el trabajador permanezca en la misma, pero cuando cambie de trabajo esta mayor formación beneficia a la sociedad en su conjunto al disponer de una mano de obra más cualificada. El gobierno puede favorecer esta externalidad positiva subvencionando parte de los costes de formación de las empresas. Esta subvención reduciría el coste de producción de esta empresa desplazando su curva de oferta hacia abajo. El punto de equilibrio se desplazará hacia la derecha, lo que implica un aumento del volumen de transacciones P 1
- 60. Gracias.
Notas del editor
- Figure Caption: Figure 6-5: The Price Elasticity of Demand Changes Along the Demand Curve The upper panel shows a demand curve corresponding to the demand schedule in the table. The lower panel shows how total revenue changes along that demand curve: at each price and quantity combination, the height of the bar represents the total revenue generated. You can see that at a low price, raising the price increases total revenue. So demand is inelastic at low prices. At a high price, however, a rise in price reduces total revenue. So demand is elastic at high prices.
- Figure Caption: Figure 5-1: The Market for Apartments in the Absence of Government Controls Without government intervention, the market for apartments reaches equilibrium at point E with a market rent of $1,000 per month and 2 million apartments rented.
- Figure Caption: Figure 5-2: The Effects of a Price Ceiling The black horizontal line represents the government-imposed price ceiling on rents of $800 per month. This price ceiling reduces the quantity of apartments supplied to 1.8 million, point A, and increases the quantity demanded to 2.2 million, point B. This creates a persistent shortage of 400,000 units: 400,000 people who want apartments at the legal rent of $800 but cannot get them
- Figure Caption: Figure 5-5: The Market for Butter in the Absence of Government Controls Without government intervention, the market for butter reaches equilibrium at a price of $1 per pound with 10 million pounds of butter bought and sold.
- Figure Caption: Figure 5-6: The Effects of a Price Floor The dark horizontal line represents the government-imposed price floor of $1.20 per pound of butter. The quantity of butter demanded falls to 9 million pounds, and the quantity supplied rises to 12 million pounds, generating a persistent surplus of 3 million pounds of butter.
- Figure Caption: Figure 5-8: The Market for Taxi Rides in the Absence of Government Controls Without government intervention, the market reaches equilibrium with 10 million rides taken per year at a fare of $5 per ride.
- Figure Caption: Figure 5-9: Effect of a Quota on the Market for Taxi Rides The table shows the demand price and the supply price corresponding to each quantity: the price at which that quantity would be demanded and supplied, respectively. The city government imposes a quota of 8 million rides by selling licenses for only 8 million rides, represented by the black vertical line. The price paid by consumers rises to $6 per ride, the demand price of 8 million rides, shown by point A. The supply price of 8 million rides is only $4 per ride, shown by point B. The difference between these two prices is the quota rent per ride, the earnings that accrue to the owner of a license. The quota rent drives a wedge between the demand price and the supply price. And since the quota discourages mutually beneficial transactions, it creates a deadweight loss equal to the shaded triangle.
- Figure Caption: Figure 7-2: An Excise Tax Imposed on Hotel Owners A $40 per room tax imposed on hotel owners shifts the supply curve from S1to S2, an upward shift of $40. The equilibrium price of hotel rooms rises from $80 to $100 a night, and the equilibrium quantity of rooms rented falls from 10,000 to 5,000. Although hotel owners pay the tax, they actually bear only half the burden: the price they receive net of tax falls only $20, from $80 to $60. Guests who rent rooms bear the other half of the burden, because the price they pay rises by $20, from $80 to $100.
- Figure Caption: Figure 7-3: An Excise Tax Imposed on Hotel Guests A $40 per room tax imposed on hotel guests shifts the demand curve from D1to D2, a downward shift of $40. The equilibrium price of hotel rooms falls from $80 to $60 a night, and the quantity of rooms rented falls from 10,000 to 5,000. Although in this case the tax is officially paid by consumers, while in Figure 7-2 the tax was paid by producers, the outcome is the same: after taxes, hotel owners receive $60 per room but guests pay $100. This illustrates a general principle: The incidence of an excise tax doesn’t depend on whether consumers or producers officially pay the tax.
- Figure Caption: Figure 7-4: An Excise Tax Paid Mainly By Consumers The relatively steep demand curve here reflects a low price elasticity of demand for gasoline. The relatively flat supply curve reflects a high price elasticity of supply. The pre-tax price of a gallon of gasoline is $2.00, and a tax of $1.00 per gallon is imposed. The price paid by consumers rises by $1.95 to $2.95, reflecting the fact that most of the burden of the tax falls on consumers. Only a small portion of the tax is borne by producers: the price they receive falls by only $0.05 to $1.95.
- Figure Caption: Figure 7-5: An Excise Tax Paid Mainly by Producers The relatively flat demand curve here reflects a high price elasticity of demand for downtown parking, and the relatively steep supply curve results from a low price elasticity of supply. The pre-tax price of a daily parking space is $6.00 and a tax of $5.00 is imposed. The price received by producers falls a lot, to $1.50, reflecting the fact that they bear most of the tax burden. The price paid by consumers rises a small amount, $0.50, to $6.50, so they bear very little of the burden.
- Figure Caption: Figure 7-6: The Revenue from an Excise Tax The revenue from a $40 excise tax on hotel rooms is $200,000, equal to the tax rate, $40—the size of the wedge that the tax drives between the supply price and the demand price—multiplied by the number of rooms rented, 5,000. This is equal to the area of the shaded rectangle.
- Figure Caption: Figure 18-1: Four Types of Goods There are four types of goods. The type of a good depends on (1) whether or not it is excludable—whether a producer can prevent someone from consuming it; and (2) whether or not it is rival in consumption—whether it is impossible for the same unit of a good to be consumed by more than one person at the same time.
- Figure Caption: Figure 18-1: Four Types of Goods There are four types of goods. The type of a good depends on (1) whether or not it is excludable—whether a producer can prevent someone from consuming it; and (2) whether or not it is rival in consumption—whether it is impossible for the same unit of a good to be consumed by more than one person at the same time.
- El ingreso marginal social de la contaminación es el ingreso que obtiene la sociedad en su conjunto debido a que hay una unidad adicional de contaminación. (ahorro en factores productivos por producir una tonelada más de contaminación que se pueden destinar a otros fines)
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-1: The Socially Optimal Quantity of Pollution Pollution yields both costs and benefits. Here the curve MSC shows how the marginal cost to society as a whole from emitting one more ton of pollution emissions depends on the quantity of emissions. The curve MSB shows how the marginal benefit to society as a whole of emitting an additional ton of pollution emissions depends on the quantity of pollution emissions. The socially optimal quantity of pollution is QOPT; at that quantity, the marginal social benefit of pollution is equal to the marginal social cost, corresponding to $200.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-2: Why a Market Economy Produces Too Much Pollution In the absence of government intervention, the quantity of pollution will be QMKT, the level at which the marginal social benefit of pollution is zero. This is an inefficiently high quantity of pollution: the marginal social cost, $400, greatly exceeds the marginal social benefit, $0. An optimal Pigouvian tax of $200, the value of the marginal social cost of pollution when it equals the marginal social benefit of pollution, can move the market to the socially optimal quantity of pollution, QOPT.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-5: Negative Externalities and Production Livestock production generates external costs, so the marginal social cost curve, MSC, of livestock, corresponds to the supply curve, S, shifted upward by the marginal external cost. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces the quantity QMKT. It is greater than the socially optimal quantity of livestock production, QOPT, the quantity at which MSC crosses the demand curve, D. At QMKT, the market price, PMKT, is less than PMSC, the true marginal cost to society of livestock production. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian tax on livestock production, equal to its marginal external cost, moves the production to QOPT, resulting in lower output and a higher price to consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-4: Positive Externalities and Consumption Consumption of flu shots generates external benefits, so the marginal social benefit curve, MSB, of flu shots, corresponds to the demand curve, D, shifted upward by the marginal external benefit. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces QMKT. It is lower than the socially optimal quantity of consumption, QOPT, the quantity at which MSB crosses the supply curve, S. At QMKT, the marginal social benefit of another flu shot, PMSB, is greater than the marginal benefit to consumers of another flu shot, PMKT. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian subsidy to consumers, equal to the marginal external benefit, moves consumption to QOPT by lowering the price paid by consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-4: Positive Externalities and Consumption Consumption of flu shots generates external benefits, so the marginal social benefit curve, MSB, of flu shots, corresponds to the demand curve, D, shifted upward by the marginal external benefit. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces QMKT. It is lower than the socially optimal quantity of consumption, QOPT, the quantity at which MSB crosses the supply curve, S. At QMKT, the marginal social benefit of another flu shot, PMSB, is greater than the marginal benefit to consumers of another flu shot, PMKT. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian subsidy to consumers, equal to the marginal external benefit, moves consumption to QOPT by lowering the price paid by consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-5: Negative Externalities and Production Livestock production generates external costs, so the marginal social cost curve, MSC, of livestock, corresponds to the supply curve, S, shifted upward by the marginal external cost. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces the quantity QMKT. It is greater than the socially optimal quantity of livestock production, QOPT, the quantity at which MSC crosses the demand curve, D. At QMKT, the market price, PMKT, is less than PMSC, the true marginal cost to society of livestock production. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian tax on livestock production, equal to its marginal external cost, moves the production to QOPT, resulting in lower output and a higher price to consumers.