Peanuts: Organic Production

1. Peanuts: Organic Production
A Publication of ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service • 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org
By Martin Guerena People interested in growing peanuts and experienced peanut growers considering a switch to organic
and Katherine Adam production may find a high demand for organic peanuts and enjoy higher premiums over traditionally
NCAT Agriculture grown peanuts.
Specialists
Labor and management costs can be much higher for organic peanuts than conventionally grown pea-
© 2008 NCAT
nuts. In place of off-farm inputs, organic peanut farmers can use intensive management, maintain high
soil fertility, manage weeds through hand hoeing and specialized equipment and manage insects with
Contents alternative insect management strategies.
Introduction ....................... 1
Part I: Markets, peanuts
and premiums.................... 2
Organic markets ..................2
Organic peanuts..................2
History .....................................3
Marketing challenges........3
Alternative uses ...................4
Forage peanuts ................4
Peanut oil potential for
biodiesel..............................4
Organic demands and
premiums ...............................5
Production budgets ..........5
Part II: Production of
organic peanuts ................ 5
Soil and fertility ...................5
Rotations ................................6
Organic integrated pest
management ........................8
Insects .....................................9
Diseases ................................11
Nematodes ..........................13
Weeds ....................................14
Conservation tillage ........14
Irrigation ..............................15
Harvesting and post Peanut crop. Photo by Brad Haire, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org
harvest handling ...............15
Summary ............................... 16
References ........................ 17 Introduction to insect pests and diseases. When pest
O
Further resource .............19 controls are neccessary, organic farmers
Appendix: Sources of rganic production of peanuts, or any manage insects, diseases, weeds and other
thermal weeders .............19 commodity, relies on management pests with cultural, mechanical, biological
techniques that replenish and main-
and, as a last resort, organically accepted
tain long-term soil fertility by optimizing the
ATTRA – National Sustainable biorational and chemical controls.
Agriculture Information Service is soil’s biological activity. This is achieved
managed by the National Center for
Appropriate Technology (NCAT)
through crop rotation, cover cropping or com- In 2002, the U.S. Department of Agri-
and is funded under a grant posting and using organically accepted fer- culture implemented its National Organic
from the U.S. Department of
Agriculture’s Rural Business-
tilizers that feed the soil and provide plants Program. The program regulates organic
Cooperative Service. Visit the with nutrients. production nationwide. Farmers and ranch-
NCAT Web site (www.ncat.org/
sarc_current.php) for In addition to producing high-quality ers that market their products as organic
more information on
crops, healthy and well-balanced soil can must be certified. An exception to this
our sustainable agri-
culture projects. help plants develop natural resistance requirement is made for farmers who sell

2. less than $5,000 annually. For more infor- Several factors may have contributed to the
mation on organic crop production and increase, including:
organic farm certification, see ATTRA’s
• Reduced concern about fat in foods
publications Organic Crop Production Over-
view, Organic Farm Certification and the • Studies linking peanut consumption
National Organic Program and Organic to health
Certification Process. • Introduction of new products such
as flavored in-shell peanuts
Part I: Markets, peanuts • Increased retail promotion by the
Related ATTRA
publications and premiums industry
• Promotional emphasis on peanut
Alternative Agronomic Organic markets
Crops
health benefits (USDA/ERS, 2002)
There is very little published marketing In conventional peanut production, the bat-
NCAT’s Organic Crops research on emerging organic peanut mar- tle for a share of the world peanut market is
Workbook kets. Anecdotal information shows that constant and influenced by price and qual-
Organic Field Crops demand is high for organic peanuts and ity of peanuts, on-time service to buyers and
Documentation Forms organic farmers enjoy high premiums over ample peanut supplies (Spearman, 2006a).
Soil Management:
conventionally grown peanuts. The United States now ranks third in the
National Organic Some large organic food manufacturers seek world in peanut production, behind China
Program Regulations dependable supplies of organic peanuts and and India.
Biodiesel: may be willing to contract for organic pro-
The Sustainability duction. The snack food industry, rather than Organic peanuts
Dimension the peanut butter sector, may be the larger
Organic peanut production is traditionally
market for organic peanuts.
Oilseed Processing for confi ned to the Valencia cultivar in New
Small-scale Producers This has implications for the type of pea- Mexico, Colorado and West Texas.
Organic Crop nut desired and for the geographical area
Production Overview most suited to its production. Since shellers Virginia, Runner, Spanish and Valencia are
and manufacturers are the principal con- the four peanut cultivars. The main commer-
Organic Farm
Certification and the
tractors for peanut production in the South, cial peanut crop raised in the United States is
National Organic a much different processing and marketing the Runner type, used mainly for peanut but-
Program infrastructure may need to be developed to ter. The Runner cultivar makes up 75 percent
serve organic markets. of the country’s planted acreage, mostly in
Organic Certification the Southeast. The Virginia type comprises
Process In general, peanut production in the United 15 percent of the U.S. crop, grown mainly in
States is rising. According to the Peanut Virginia and the Carolinas. Five percent of the
Overview of Cover
Crops and Green Council, American peanuts are considered national crop is Spanish peanuts, grown in
Manures to be the highest quality in the world (Led- the Southwest. The Valencia cultivar, grown
better and Wallace, 2006). The United in New Mexico, makes up 1 percent of the
States exports from 200,000 to 250,000 U.S. crop.
metric tons of peanuts per year (American
Peanut Council, 2002).
While several major market types of
Peanuts-value of production in 2005 peanuts can grow in New Mexico, three
State rank State Value of production Valencia strains were developed for the
climate, soil and length of growing season
1 Georgia $368.1 million
in the state. Valencias, a red-skinned pea-
2 Texas $162.9 million
nut undesirable for making peanut butter,
3 Alabama $103.6 million are typically marketed as in-shell edible
4 Florida $69.8 million peanuts.
5 North Carolina $56.7 million
• Valencia A has a red seed coat and
Source: National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006
a bunching growth habit. The A200
Page 2 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

3. cultivar, developed from the Tennes- pre-colonial times (Georgia Cooperative
see Red peanut, was released in 1971 Extension, 1982). Historical records indi-
by New Mexico State University’s cate that the peanut was primarily a gar-
Agricultural Experiment Station as den crop until after the Civil War. As a field
New Mexico Valencia A. This variety crop, farmers grew peanuts only for hog
of peanut has the greatest proportion pasture until about 1930 (Putnam et al.,
of three- and four-seeded pods. 1991). Peanuts are still recommended as an
• Valencia C also has a red seed coat easy-to-grow home garden crop in the South
and emerges one to three days later and can mature as far north as central New
than Valencia A. This strain is a York (Dawling, 2006). The noted scientist
1979 NMSU release, developed George Washington Carver, of Tuskegee
from irradiated Colorado Manfredi Institute in Alabama, developed numerous
seed with parentage of Colorado de products from the peanut, including food-
Cordoba introduced from Argentina. stuff, dyes, medicines and fuels.
Valencia C has a larger seed and a Peanuts need a minimum of 110 frost-free
higher percentage of sound, mature days to produce a crop, and Virginia-type
kernels than other Valencia variet- peanuts require 2520 to 2770 growing-
ies. It matures at the same time as degree days above a base of 57 degrees
the Valencia A strain. Fahrenheit for successful production (Dawl-
• The McRan Valencia cultivar is pro- ing, 2006). Other requirements include
tected under the New Mexico Plant warm to hot growing conditions with ade-
Variety Protection Act. The McRan quate but not excessive water. Irrigation
cultivar produces three- and four- may be necessary in some years. Light,
seeded pods that have limited con- loose, well-drained soil is also highly desir-
striction and contain full, touching, able. Using the right rotation, or even inter-
flattened seed (Baker et al., 2000). planting another legume, often eliminates
the need for additional fertilizer.
History
The peanut, Arachis hypogaea L. (Fabaceae, Dr. Mark Boudreau, a farm consultant with
subfamily of Leguminoseae), likely origi- Hebert Green Agroecology, received a 2005
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Educa-
nated in Bolivia and already grew in the tion grant from Southern Region Sustainable
Americas when European explorers arrived Agriculture Research and Education (SoSARE).
in the 16th century. Peanuts, a tropical and Boudreau contends that peanut growers in the
warm-season temperate crop, soon were South can switch to organic production using
cultivated in Europe, Africa, Asia and the whole-farm decision risk management and
Pacific Islands. state-of-the-art techniques. He recommends:
• Using resistant cultivars
In Africa, peanuts are called groundnut,
but a related edible weed species (Apios • Using cover crops and rotations
americana) is also known as groundnut. • Understanding diversification and
Other related genera include Amphicar- insect management
paea (hog peanut), Astragalus (milkvetch), • Checking weather-based advisories
Cajanus (pigeon pea), Canavalia (jackbean • Using organic pesticides
and swordbean), Caragana (Siberian pea
shrub), Cicer (chickpea), and all garden Marketing challenges
beans, including limas and fabas. Most of
It is difficult to fi nd published marketing
these plants have edible seeds or pods, but
research results of any type, especially
some peanuts can cause an allergic reaction
research on emerging organic markets. In
in susceptible individuals.
New Mexico, Sunland Peanut Company con-
A University of Georgia bulletin notes that tracts for 2,500 acres of organic peanuts
peanuts have grown in that state since from eight to 10 growers that are certified
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3

4. by Farm Verified Organic, a USDA-accred- once established. Perennial peanuts were
ited organic certifier, and eligible for export introduced to Florida in 1936 from Bra-
to the European Union. Processing occurs zil. Other types of peanut had long been
in the certified-organic Sunland facility at used for grazing in the Southeast. Cultivars
Portales (Yancy, 2000). include Floragraze, Arbrook and Ecoturf.
An Overview of the North Carolina Organic Commercial production is limited to the
Industry contained the results of a survey of warmer portion of USDA hardiness zone 8a
17 peanut buyers that handled organic pea- and zones 8b, 9 and above, including the
nuts east of the Mississippi: coastal plain from South Carolina to Browns-
Six [buyers] typically bought bulk loads of ville, Texas and including all of Florida.
organic peanuts...The six companies that
Perennial peanut hay is sold by the bale,
bought organic peanuts preferred to buy
‘Valencia’ peanuts. Each company purchased but may also be pelleted and cubed. There
different amounts of peanuts, with the two is some demand for perennial peanut hay
largest volume companies buying in excess of as ornamental material for turf. Perennial
150 tons of organic peanuts per year. Three peanuts are also being used as a cover crop
companies bought smaller amounts ranging in citrus groves (Silva, 1998).
between 1 and 2 tons annually...Larger volume
buyers preferred peanuts to be packaged in In 2005, 16,000 acres of perennial, or
containers that held either 55 pounds of pea- forage, peanuts were planted in the United
nuts or [in] a bulk bin. Smaller volume buyers
found smaller units such as a 25-pound box
States (Williams, 2005). Elide Valen-
an acceptable container. Peanut buyers paid cia of the University of the Virgin Islands
growers between $0.80 per pound and $1.50 published extensively on forage peanut.
per pound, with the largest volume buyer pay- In 2003, the USDA’s Agricultural Research
ing the lowest price to growers...Peanut buy- Service sent scientists to Paraguay for
ers indicated that large proportions of organic
new germplasm of A. glabrata, and acces-
peanuts were obtained from New Mexico
growers because they believed that the afla- sions are being evaluated at six locations
toxin risk was lower with New Mexico peanuts in the United States (Williams, 2005).
than with east-coast produced peanuts. Buyers Organic production of forage peanut is not
also believed that organic peanuts were a com- yet underway.
plicated crop to grow using organic methods
and encourage growers to improve quality to
have a competitive edge in the organic market Peanut oil potential for biodiesel
(Estes et al., 1999). As described in the ATTRA publication
Biodiesel: The Sustainability Dimensions,
Alternative Uses peanuts rank in the first tier of oilseed crops,
While nonfood products and by-products producing 109 gallons of oil per acre. This
are derived from conventional peanut yield compares very favorably with that
production, there is no indication at pres- of other temperate oilseeds like rapeseed,
ent that manufacturers of organic body- which yields 122 gallons per acre and sun-
care products or livestock feed would flowers, which yield 98 gallons per acre. The
constitute a significant market for organic yield from peanuts is much higher than that
peanut producers. of soybeans at 46, oats at 22 and corn at 18
gallons per acre.
Forage peanuts Competing uses for peanuts and acreage
The perennial peanut (Arachis glabrata limitations restricted the investigation of pea-
Benth; A. pintoi), a warm season, tropical nut oil as a motor fuel. However, it is quite
perennial legume native to South Amer- feasible to produce biodiesel from used
ica, is propagated by rhizomes since it does restaurant cooking-oil blends that contain
not set seed in temperate zones. The pea- peanut oil. Peanut oil was the prototype fuel
nuts are called perennial because they are used by Rudolph Diesel for the Paris World
long-lived and do not require replanting Exhibition in the late 19th century. For more
Page 4 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

5. information on this topic, see the References irrigation costs are considered. Costs of off-
section at the end of this publication. farm inputs may also rise for conventional
producers. For sample production budgets
Organic demands and for flood-irrigated and sprinkle-irrigated
premiums peanuts in New Mexico, see Libbin in the
References section (2001 a,b).
Organic peanut production, like conventional
farming, is mostly done by contract. At the Wedel said he employs three additional full-
2005 Nebraska Sustainable Agriculture time workers for his organic operation. He
Society meeting, peanut grower Jimmy Wedel spent an additional $100,000 for seasonal,
of Muleshoe, Texas, quoted a 2004 organic including migrant, labor including hoeing.
premium of $225 per ton for his 650 acres Wedel also spent an additional $20,000
of Valencias. The price for conventionally for repairs and fuel expense for equipment
grown peanuts was $575 per ton (2005). specific to organic production. This repre-
Wedel also said the price for 2004 organic sents a cost of about $185 per acre more
Spanish peanuts was quoted at $800 per ton than conventional production, not account-
compared to $425 per ton for conventionally ing for lower costs associated with not using
grown peanuts. Wedel estimated the five-year pesticides and fertilizers. Wedel said a good
yield range for Valencia peanuts at 1 to 1.75 hoe crew is fundamental to managing weeds
tons per acre. This means a gross income for good crop yields since peanuts are
of $1,200. For Spanish peanuts, Wedel particularly susceptible to weed pressures.
estimates a five-year yield of 1.25 to 2 tons
per acre with a gross income of $1,400. Part II: Production of
Since peanuts are part of a three-year crop organic peanuts
rotation, Wedel also raises organic blue Organic production of peanuts relies on
corn, white and yellow food corn, soybeans, management techniques that replenish and
wheat for grain, grazing and green manure,
maintain long-term soil fertility by opti-
cotton and grass for wildlife habitat. Wedel
mizing the soil’s biological activity. This is
devotes 10 percent of his 5,000 mostly irri-
achieved through crop rotation, cover crop-
gated acres to conventional alfalfa, silage
corn, pinto beans, black-eyed peas and ping or composting, and by using organi-
green beans. With this method, Wedel said cally accepted fertilizers that feed the soil
he harvests “virtually the same yield that and provide plants with nutrients. Organic
your conventional acres make” and receives farmers manage insects, diseases, weeds
“a huge premium over the conventional and other pests with an array of cultural,
market” (2005). mechanical and biological options. As a last
resort, peanut growers can use organically
Wedel is certified by the Texas Department accepted biorational and chemical controls.
of Agriculture and only has domestic con-
tracts. Additional certification would be nec- Soil and fertility
essary if supply and demand ever indicated
export opportunities. International Certifica- Organic peanut growers need to get a sense
tion Services is the internationally accepted of their soil fertility by obtaining a soil test
organic certifier for U.S.-grown peanuts. report with recommendations specifically
For more information, see the Resources for peanuts. Previous experience with rota-
section at the end of this publication. tional cover crops and compost or manure
appl icat ions is a lso helpful. Organic
Production budgets peanut growers must work closely with
crop adv i sers fam i l ia r w ith orga n ic
Every peanut-producing state publishes
production and peanuts.
annual production budgets for conventional
production, but not organic production. Growers should always consider the his-
Budgets vary by state, especially when tory of the field they select for peanuts,
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5

6. especially if it is a new site. In 2003, the systems. Finding the right rotation crop in
North Carolina Department of Agricul- terms of profitability and agronomic char-
ture and Consumer Services warned new acteristics can be challenging. Factors like
peanut growers about zinc buildup due geography, climate and irrigation capabili-
to chicken litter application, especially in ties are important to consider when choos-
eastern counties. ing suitable rotational crops.
Some fields that received heavy, long-term Relay crops are recommended by North
litter applications now have zinc-index (Zn-I) Carolina State University plant pathologist
values approaching (Zn-I = 300 (12 ppm), Dr. Jack Bailey, a professor and extension
caution advised) or exceeding the toxicity specialist. Relay cropping is a cropping sys-
thresholds (Zn-I = 500 (20 ppm), critical tem that calls for two or more crops grown in
toxic level) for peanuts. Growing peanuts sequence in the same field in the same year
on fields with Zn-I values above 300 is not with little or no overlap in time. Relay crops
advisable. Officials alerted growers that tox- keep the ground covered at all times and
icity was more likely for soil pH below 6.0 help control the No. 1 problem in organic
(Hall, 2003). production — weeds (Yancy, 2002).
Lime is essential for successful peanut To combat soilborne diseases endemic in
production. Soil pH needs to be carefully the Southeast, Bailey recommended “the
monitored and should be in the 5.8 to 6.2 longest possible rotation, with crops such
range for Southern growers. Large-seeded as cotton, wheat, corn and grasses.” Other-
Virginia peanuts require high calcium con- wise, a field might be out of production for
tent in the soil surface at pegging for pod several years just to get rid of disease build-
development and quality. Land plaster or up, and long rotations are known to reduce
gypsum, a by-product of drywall, is not leafspot problems.
allowed as a source of calcium in organic
Some rotation crops for peanuts are sweet
production. Mined sources of gypsum
corn, sweet potatoes, cotton, sesame, veg-
are allowed.
etables, small grains and pastures like
Excessive levels of potassium within the Bahia grass. In Australia, tropical peanuts
fruiting zone, or the top 2 to 3 inches of soil, are grown as a companion crop for sugar
are associated with peanut pod rot. Potas- cane, or as an optional cane fallow legume.
sium also competes with calcium uptake at In addition to being a profitable extra crop,
pegging, resulting in a high percentage of peanuts provide nitrogen and are resistant
pops, or unfi lled shells. Any potash (K2O) to root knot nematodes that are blamed for
is incorporated along with the preceding declining cane yields in lighter cane soils
crop’s fertilizer, if possible, in order to allow (Peanut Company of Australia, 2006).
enough time for potassium to move below
the fruiting zone before pegging.
Manganese deficiency may occur when soil
pH exceeds 6.2. Again, careful soil moni-
toring and soil and plant analysis are rec-
ommended. The amount of boron recom-
mended on a soil test report prevents hollow
heart in peanuts. Boron can be applied as
a pre-plant broadcast treatment along with
other fertilizer applications, or as a foliar
spray near blooming (Hardy et al., 2006).
Rotations
Rotations are critical in the fertility and Symptoms of root knot. Photo by Howard F.
pest management of organic production Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org
Page 6 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

7. New techniques for
managing migrating
peanut pests
By Rex Dufour, NCAT California
Farmers who grow peanuts adjacent
to cotton fields may want to plant sor-
ghum between the peanuts and cot-
ton. U.S. Department of Agriculture
researcher Dr. Glynn Tillman found that
rows of sorghum planted between cot-
ton and peanut fields will act as a trap
crop for stinkbugs that migrate out of
the peanuts during harvest. Tillman’s
Georgia project is part of a Conserva-
tion Innovation Grant funded by the
Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
vice and managed by the National Cen-
ter for Appropriate Technology.
Growers should sow two plantings of
sorghum several weeks apart. That This photo shows a sorghum trap crop with ripe brown seed heads. Yellow pheromone traps for
helps pests find the stage of sorghum brown stink bug are placed in the first row of sorghum. Cotton is barely visible on the far side of
that is most attractive during the entire the field in front of the trees. Peanuts are in the foreground. When peanuts are ready for harvest,
the plants are turned upside down to allow the peanuts to dry. A few days later a combine comes
cotton season. The sorghum also pro-
through to remove the peanuts from the plant. In this photo, the peanuts are inverted. The four
vides plenty of pollen for the minute rows adjacent to the sorghum are yet not turned. As the peanuts in this field are dug, stink bugs
pirate bug, an egg predator of stink- will migrate from the plants into the adjacent sorghum, rather than into the cotton crop. Photo
bugs. This combination of trap crop by Kristie Graham.
and beneficial insect habitat can pro-
tect cotton crops from damage by
stinkbugs that are migrating from To achieve a similar effect, research- method that calls for sowing the entire
harvested peanut fields. ers are experimenting with another sorghum planting in one day and then
mowing half of the sorghum rows 70
to 80 days later. This technique mim-
ics the two-plantings approach, but is
easier to execute. The two stages of
sorghum will provide beneficial and
pest insects preferred habitats.
For more information about this
research, contact:
Glynn Tillman,
Research Entomologist
229-387-2375
Glynn.Tillman@ars.usda.gov
Rex Dufour,
NCAT California Regional Director
406-533-6650
rexd@ncat.org
Growing in this field are, from left to right: peanuts, the first planting of sorghum with nearly
ripe grain, the second planting of sorghum with seed heads still green and cotton. Entomologist
Glynn Tillman (center) and field scouts Brittany Giles (left) and Kristie Graham evaluate the
sorghum for stink bug populations. Photo courtesy of USDA ARS.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7

8. Organic integrated pest arthropods (insects and mites) and large
soil-dwelling mammals like moles, ground
management squirrels and gophers.
Integrated pest management is a broad eco-
logical approach to pest management using Photosynthesizers, the primary producers
a variety of pest control techniques that tar- in this system, use the sun’s energy to con-
get the entire pest complex of a crop eco- vert atmospheric carbon into sugars. Other
system. Integrated management of pests organisms feed off these primary produc-
ensures high-quality agricultural produc- ers. Dead organisms and their by-products
tion in a sustainable, environmentally safe decompose and become the soil’s organic
Related ATTRA and economically sound manner (Bajwa and matter that stores nutrients and energy.
publications Plants use these nutrients, preventing them
Kogan, 2002.).
Alternative Control of from accumulating in soil and water.
Johnsongrass Soil health is based on soil biology, which
is responsible for the cycling of nutrients. The life cycle of all these organisms improves
Nematodes: The complex interaction of this biological the condition of soils by enhancing structure,
Alternative Controls community is known as the soil food web. water infi ltration and holding capacity, and
Conservation Tillage The soil ecosystem is composed of bacte- aeration. This results in healthy plants that
Cucumber Beetles:
ria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, algae, are more productive and resistant to pests.
Organic and
Biorational IPM
Farmscaping to Soil solarization
Enhance Biological The technique known as solar-
Control ization involves laying a clear
Field Bindweed plastic polyethylene tarp on
Control Alternatives moist soil and letting the
sun’s rays heat the soil. Heat
Flame Weeding for trapped under the plastic
Agronomic Crops raises the soil temperature and
Principles of kills or debilitates pests. Most
Sustainable Weed research worldwide concen-
Management for trates on hot and arid areas,
Croplands but anywhere with hot sum-
mers has the potential to use
Pursuing this system. Soil pasteuriza-
Conservation Tillage tion usually takes four to six
Systems for Organic weeks, but the amount of Plant pathologist Daniel Chellemi (left) and organic grower Kevin O’ Dare
Crop Production time depends on factors such inspect the progress of a soil solarization treatment. Photo by Randall Smith,
as rain, wind, day length, soil courtesy of USDA ARS.
Sustainable
texture and the quality of the
Management of Soil- Before solarization, the land inches of soil, and best control
polyethylene tarp. Ultravio-
borne Plant Diseases where the crop will be seeded is generally obtained down to
let-protected plastic is recom-
or transplanted must be pre- 6 inches.
Thistle Control mended so that the tarp can
pared for planting. Growers
Alternatives be removed and re-used. Special caution: Drip tape must
must shape beds, install drip
Thrips Management Certain types of organic mat- tape and level fields. This prep- be buried at least 1 inch deep
Alternatives in the ter can be added to the soil for aration is necessary to avoid to avoid damage from the
Field bio-fumigation. Compost and stirring up the soil after solar- sun’s rays. In experiments when
residues from brassica crops ization. Stirring would bring researchers placed tape on the
such as broccoli and mustard fresh pest organisms to the surface of the bed and then cov-
show this bio-fumigant effect. soil surface. Depending on the ered the tape with the clear plas-
When heated in the solarization outside temperature, sunlight tic, the magnifying effect of the
process, some brassica crops density and the type of pests, sun on the water droplets that
release volatile compounds soil solarization can provide condensed on the plastic dam-
that are toxic to many pests. good pest control in 8 to 10 aged the drip tape.
Page 8 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

9. The North Carolina Peanut Project:
Insects
On-farm research on pesticide Using biological and cultural insect con-
alternatives in peanut production and trols for peanuts involves understanding
methods of implementation the ecology of agricultural systems. Plant-
A multi-partner project to make North Carolina ing large expanses of a single, susceptible
peanut production more environmentally benign crop, or monocropping, encourages pest
and improve peanut profitability started in 1995,
problems. A diverse farmscape involving
when it became evident that the USDA’s pea-
nut program was likely to change dramatically
many types of plants and animals consid-
in the next decade. A strong support network erably diminishes the likelihood of severe
and some funding were provided to individual insect pest outbreaks.
farmers trying new approaches. Ten key goals
for more sustainable, less chemical-dependent
Farmers must create production methods
production came out of this project and set the that complement natural systems. The use
groundwork for future organic production: of beneficial insect habitats along crop field
1) Convince producers that bottom-line return borders increases the presence of benefi-
was more important in the long run than cial insects (Grez and Prado, 2000; White
gross yield. et al., 1995; Bugg, 1993). These habitats
2) Improve soil fertility by utilizing cover, catch, provide shelter, food (pollen and nectar)
relay and green manure crops, as well as and act as refuges that attract the natural
composts and slow-release rock fertiliz- enemies of pests.
ers to increase crop health and vigor and
reduce the effects of weeds and pests. When farmers release beneficial insects,
3) Reduce soil erosion through a variety of these field-edge habitats will encourage the
conservation measures. beneficial insects to stay and continue their
4) Implement a site-specific, biologically based life cycles. This helps reduce pest popula-
whole-farm integrated pest management tions. Some pests may also inhabit the field-
plan through beneficials enhancement,
edge habitats. These habitats should be
crop rotation and resistant cultivars as the
first choice before using least-toxic, target- monitored along with the crop. For additional
specific pesticides. information, request ATTRA’s publication
5) Scout frequently to improve an operator’s Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control.
ability to respond promptly and efficiently
to pest problems. Caterpillar pests
6) Provide long-term habitat for beneficials
through skip rows, field border manage-
Corn earworm, fall armyworm, velvetbean
ment, relay cropping, reduction of broad- caterpillar, green cloverleaf worm, Euro-
spectrum pesticide usage and other pean corn borer, redneck peanut worm,
management techniques. saltmarsh caterpillar, soybean looper and
7) Add market value to all crops in the rota- cutworms are some of the caterpillar pests
tion to increase the producers’ share of retail that attack peanuts. Caterpillars have many
through market premiums for specific prac- natural enemies that help keep their popula-
tices, niche markets and additional post-har- tions at low levels. Ground beetles, spiders,
vest handling and packaging.
damsel bugs, minute pirate bugs, assas-
8) Lengthen and improve crop rotations to
sin bugs, bigeyed bugs and lacewing lar-
provide cost-effective prevention against
a wide range of pests, diseases and weed vae attack caterpillars. The parasitic wasps
problems. Trichogramma, Copidosom, Apanteles, Dia-
9) Develop and use a range of options for pest degma and Hyposoter sting and parasitize
control intervention including biological eggs and larvae.
control of weeds and insects, flame weed-
ing and innovative cultivation equipment.
Some of these organisms are available com-
10) Increase cultivar pest resistance through
mercially or may occur naturally in the
selective breeding, plant spacing and seed- environment. For information on suppli-
ing rates (Marlow, 1998). ers of beneficial insects, visit the Suppliers
of Beneficial Organisms in North America
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9

10. Web site at www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/ applications. Caterpillars in the early
ben_supp/ben_sup2.htm stages of development (first and second
instars) are more susceptible to Bt. Older
Biopesticides, or microbial controls, con-
sist of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), insect- and bigger worms are more difficult to kill.
consuming fungi and viruses. Bt is a Entrust, from Dow Agrosciences, is
naturally occurring bacterium that pro- derived from the soil organism Saccha-
duces a toxin that causes paralysis of a ropolyspora spinosa. It is OMRI-approved
T
caterpillar’s digestive tract. A caterpillar and registered for control of armyworm,
he benefi- may continue to live for some hours after corn earworm, loopers and other cater-
cial popu- ingestion, but will not continue to feed. pillar pests on peanuts. Spod-X LC and
lation may Bt strains are available in a number Gemstar LC from Certis USA are nuclear
often keep the pest of commercial products under various polyhedrosis virus products available com-
under the economic trade names. The following products are mercially and are OMRI-approved for the
threshold, which is approved for organic production by the control of armyworm and corn earworm,
Organic Materials Review Institute: Pro- respectively, on peanuts. Other naturally
the level below eco-
long from Cillus Technology Inc., Britz occurring granulosis viruses and nuclear
nomic injury to the polyhedrosis viruses sometimes occur in
BT Dust from Britz Fertilizers Inc., DiPel
crop. An application and Xantari from Valent Biosciences, high-density caterpillar populations.
of a broad-spec- and Agree, Deliver and Javelin from Cer-
Beauveria bassiana, an insect-eating fun-
trum insecticide may tis USA. Additional information may be
gus, infects caterpillars if humidity and
damage both the obtained at ATTRA’s Ecological Pest
Management Database at www.attra.org/ temperature are adequate. Commer-
pest and beneficial
attra-pub/biorationals/biorationals_main_ cial products include Naturalis L, Myco-
insect populations. srch.php trol and Botanigard. Botanical insecti-
cides, including neem products such as
Bt degrades rapidly in sunlight and Agroneem and Neemix, act as repellents,
requires careful timing or repeated appli- antifeedants and insect growth regulators.
cations. Caterpillars must ingest Bt in Pyrethrum and rotenone-based products
sufficient amounts for the biopesticide to are broad spectrum and will kill benefi -
be effective. Growers must understand cial insects as well as pests, so monitor-
the feeding habits of these pests to use ing is important.
proper formulations and optimal timing of
Growers must also consider beneficial
Organically accepted materials to combat caterpillars insect populations when a pest population
is present. The beneficial population may
Biopesticides Commercial products often keep the pest under the economic
Bacillus thuringiensis Agree, Deliver, Javelin, Dipel, threshold, which is the level below eco-
Xantari, Prolong, Britz BT Dust nomic injury to the crop. An application of
Spinosad Entrust a broad-spectrum insecticide may damage
both the pest and beneficial insect popula-
Viruses Spod-X, Gemstar tions, and other minor pests may become a
Beauveria bassiana Mycotrol, Naturalis, Botanigard big problem. This is known as a secondary
pest outbreak.
Botanical insecticides Commercial products
Neem Neemix, Argoneem, Azadirect
Other management practices to reduce cat-
erpillar infestation include using floating
Pyrethrin Pyganic row covers over a young crop to exclude
Pyrethrin + Diatomaceous Earth Diatect V egg-laying females, nocturnal overhead
Repellents Commercial products sprinkler irrigation, pheromone misters
or emitters to disrupt mating and pepper,
Garlic Cropguard, Garlic Barrier garlic and herbal repellents.
Page 10 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

11. Southern corn rootworm products approved for organic production
are registered for the control of thrips.
Southern corn rootworms are the subterra-
nean larvae or grubs of cucumber beetles.
The adult cucumber beetle lays eggs at the Spider mites
base of the peanut plants and then the lar- Spider mites, Tetranychus, a re t iny
vae move through the soil, feeding on the arachnids (related to spiders, ticks and
pods. Organic approaches to managing this scorpions) that live in colonies. Spider
pest include population monitoring, cultural mites spin webs and feed under plant
practices, trap crops, baits, sticky traps, leaves. They have modified mouth parts
predatory organisms and organic insecti- that pierce the cells of the leaf to con-
cides and protectants. For detailed informa- sume its contents. Yellow spots appear on
tion check the ATTRA publication Cucum- the leaf’s upper surface when the feeding
ber Beetles: Organic and Biorational IPM. is moderate. If the infestation is severe,
mites can cause defoliation, stunting and
Three-cornered alfalfa hoppers reduced yields.
The three-cornered alfalfa hopper, Spissisti- Insect predators of spider mites include
D
lus festinus, is a major pest in the South. It minute pirate bugs, damsel bugs, bigeyed iseases
is a piercing and sucking triangular-shaped bugs, some midges, lacewing larvae, dusty- in plants
green insect that feeds on stems and leaves. wings, spider mite destroyers, lady beetles, occur
It is also found on vegetables, soybeans, sixspotted thrips and western flower thrips.
other legumes, grasses, small grains, sun- Other mites that prey on spider mites are when a pathogen
flowers, tomatoes and weeds. On peanuts, it Amblyseius, Galendromus, Metaseiulus and is present, the host
girdles the stem during feeding, causing a Phytoseiulus. Insecticidal soaps, narrow is susceptible and
scab-like appearance. range oils, neem-based products such as the environment is
Trilogy and sulfur are acceptable miti-
Natural enemies include the bigeyed bug favorable.
cides in organic production. Check with a
and damsel bug. The bigeyed bug has been
certifier regarding specific products. Cul-
observed causing the highest mortality,
tural controls include keeping dust down
about 90 to 100 percent of the first and sec-
along roads that border peanut fields. This
ond nymphal stages, while the damsel bug
is usually done by reducing traffic along
attacked all nymphal stages of the three-cor-
those roads, watering down the roads or
nered alfalfa hoppers (Medal et al., 1995).
planting dust barriers such as corn or sun-
The kaolin clay product Surround is listed as
flowers between the field and the road.
an approved product to repel this pest.
Other insects that can be a problem in pea-
Thrips nut production are aphids and whitefl ies. If
these organisms are causing a problem in
Although not a problem in Western pea-
organic peanut production, contact ATTRA
nut-producing regions, thrips control is
for more information on how to manage
essential in the Southeast since the insect
these pests.
spreads Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus. For
control strategies, see the ATTRA pub-
lication Thrips Management Alternatives Diseases
in the Field. Thrips control options were Diseases in plants occur when a pathogen
field-tested by peanut farmers in the North is present, the host is susceptible and the
Carolina Peanut Project. As a result, 31 environment is favorable for the disease to
North Carolina growers substituted scout- develop. Altering any one of these three
ing-based control for blanket control on factors may prevent the disease from occur-
3,728 acres, significantly reducing pesti- ring. Organisms responsible for plant dis-
cide use, increasing profits and maintaining eases include fungi, bacteria, nematodes
yields (Marlow, 1998). Neem and spinosad and viruses. If these organisms are present,
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11

12. manipulating the environment and making A study at Auburn University explored
the host less susceptible helps sustainably potential for biological control of early
manage diseases on peanuts. leafspot in peanuts using the bacteria Bacil-
lus cereus and chiton as foliar amendments
Once again, soil health and management is (Kokalis-Burelle et al., 1992). Cultural
the key for successful control of plant dis- practices such as resistant varieties and
eases. Soil with adequate organic matter crop rotation may alleviate the disease, as
can house uncountable numbers of organ- could foliar inoculation of microorganisms
isms such as beneficial bacteria, fungi, with compost teas or commercial products
nematodes, protozoa, arthropods and earth- that include Bacillus subtilis bacteria, like
worms that deter harmful bacteria, fungi, Serenade. Copper and bicarbonate fungi-
nematodes and arthropods from attacking cides may also help.
plants. These beneficial organisms also help
create a healthy plant that is able to resist
pest attack. For more information, see the
Pod rots
ATTRA publication Sustainable Manage- Pythium myriotylum, Rhizoctonia solani and
ment of Soil-Borne Plant Diseases. Sclerotium rolfsii are all capable of causing
S
pod rots, which occur in every peanut-grow-
oil health
ing area. Pod rots, unlike Southern blight,
and manage- Blackhull do not exhibit above-ground symptoms.
ment is the Blackhull, a disease caused by the fungus Occasional pulling of plants throughout the
key for successful Theilaviopsis basicola, affects the pods and field, especially during pod maturation, is
control of plant mostly attacks susceptible Spanish peanut the only way to detect pod rots. Manures,
varieties in the West. Conditions that favor compost and green manure crops will
diseases.
disease development are alkaline soils, poor increase the organic matter of the soil and
drainage, low temperatures late in the sea- increase microorganisms that constitute the
son, heavy soils and a crop rotation with sus- soil food web. This increase in organisms
ceptible crops like cotton or alfalfa. Careful helps deter plant pathogens through compe-
choice of planting location and appropriate tition and antagonism and reduces disease
crop rotations, as well as early planting, are incidences in plants. Arbuscular mycorrhi-
important for organic production. zal fungi may also provide some protection
from these pod rots.
Verticillium and Fusarium wilts
Wilts can be a problem in New Mexico. Loss Southern blight (stem rot)
can be kept to a minimum if a farmer knows The disease is caused by the fungus Scle-
the disease or cultivation history of a field rotium rolfsii. The fungus spreads from
and peanuts are not planted following cot- infected plants to adjacent ones. Control
ton or vegetable plants (including potatoes) methods in organic production include the
in the crop rotation. The arbuscular mycor- use of a deep covering of crop residue,
rhizal fungus Glomus mosseae protects pea- flat cultivation to avoid pulling soil and
nut pods from infection by Fusarium solani trash toward the plants and crop rotation
(Abdalla and Abdel-Fattah, 2000). Com- with grain sorghum to reduce the number
mercial products include Mycorise, Activa- of infectious sclerotia. The fungus Tricho-
tor BioVam, Mycor and Tag Team. derma harzianum, the active ingredient in
products such as PlantShield, RootShield
and T-22 HC, inhibited mycelial growth
Leaf spot and germination of sclerotia in vitro.
Rainfall or irrigation followed by high Under screen house conditions, the fun-
humidity during the growing season can gus reduced the incidence of the disease by
contribute to Cercospora leaf spot and web 33 percent compared to untreated control
blotch (Phoma arachidicola). peanuts (Khonga et al., 1998).
Page 12 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

13. Sclerotinia blight Nematodes
Sclerotinia blight (Sclerotinia minor) occurs There are many types of nematodes in soils.
in parts of Oklahoma, Texas and North Most are beneficial, but a few are pea-
Carolina. Resistant cultivars such as Olin, a nut pests. Nematodes that attack peanuts
Spanish variety, and Tamrun OL 01, a Run- include the root knot nematodes, Meloido-
ner type developed by the USDA Agricul- gyne arenaria; M. hapla; M. javanica, lesion
ture Research Service at Stillwater, Okla., nematode Pratylenchus brachyurus, ring
show promise in resisting sclerotinia blight nematode Criconemella and sting nema-
(Pons, 2006). Research in North Caro- todes Belonolaimus longicaudatus.
lina showed that pruning peanut canopies
to alter microclimate or enhance fungicide
penetration reduced disease and increased
yield when Sclerotinia minor damage limited
yields (Bailey and Brune, 1997). Good san-
itation practices such as thorough cleaning
and washing of peanut production equip-
ment prior to entering an unaffected region
are advised.
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
TSWV is best controlled by new, resistant
varieties that are superseding old standbys
some growers still prefer, such as Georgia
Green, Southern Runner ViruGard, Gregory Scanning electron micrograph of the anterior ends of two male root knot nema-
and VC-2. The newest varieties are Georgia todes. Photo by Jonathan D. Eisenback, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Bugwood.org
02C and Georgia 01R, as well as Tift Run-
ner (Culbreath, 2004).
TSWV was severe in the Southeast in 2004, In sustainable production systems, growers
but speculation that it may be cyclical has can manage nematodes by crop rotation,
no scientific basis. Thrips transmit TSVW resistant varieties and cultural practices.
from plant to plant throughout the winter Where nematode infestations are heavy,
season since TSVW overwinters on weed sampling and laboratory analysis can be
species. Researchers believe weather may used to determine the length of rotations
have an effect on TSWV severity (Hollis, and the non-host crops to use.
2005; Mandal et al., 2002). Eventually a living soil will keep harm-
ful nematodes and soil borne fungi under
Cylindrocladium black root rot control (Yancy, 1994). Crop rotation is a
(CBR) good strategy, but it is important to iden-
Long rotations and knowledge of field his- tify the type of nematode in a field and
tory are the best controls in attempting rotate with a crop that is not an alternate
organic peanut production in humid regions host for that nematode. Check with seed
of the United States. Avoid rotation with suppliers to identify varieties resistant to
other hosts such as soybeans, alfalfa, clo- the nematodes present in fields. Cultural
vers, beans and cowpeas. Cylindrocladium practices include cover cropping with
produces microsclerotia, which are persis- plants that are antagonistic to nematodes
tent in the soil for many years. Non-hosts such as rapeseed or marigolds, controlling
include corn, cotton, sorghum and pasture weeds, incorporating chicken litter and
(bermuda or bahiagrass). In heavily infested other manures and solarization. For more
soils, rotation for at least five years without information, see the ATTRA publication
hosts is recommended. Nematodes: Alternative Controls.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13

14. Weeds to deal with weeds. In no-till research con-
Weed control in organic systems, espe- ducted in Georgia in the 1990s by Dr. Sha-
cially in peanut production, relies heavily rad Phatak, researchers found that peanuts
on crop rotations, cover crops and cultiva- yielded well when planted into rye and Crim-
tion. Of these, cultivation is the most criti- son clover. In follow-up research, the Crim-
cal to reduce weeds in an established pea- son clover was flail mowed and C-11-2-39,
nut stand. For cultivation to be successful, a a fast-spreading, quick-shading and disease-
straight, well-made bed, as well as straight resistant peanut variety, performed very well
seeding lines in a conventional diamond when planted into the clover. However, even
pattern, are necessary for cultivating imple- with superior varieties, researchers had to
ments to remove the most weeds while leav- hand weed two times. (Culbreath, 2005).
ing the crop undisturbed. Strip-tillage systems reduce most insect
Cultivation implements will cut, bury or turn pest injury. However, burrower bugs
over most young weeds, leaving the crop (Heteroptera: Cydnidae) caused major eco-
undisturbed while reducing competition. nomic injury to peanuts in some conserva-
Hoeing between plants eliminates weeds in tion tillage systems under drought stress
the planting row. For more information on (Chapin and Thomas, 2005). Conservation
weed control, read ATTRA’s publications tillage or strip tillage reduced the incidence
Principles of Sustainable Weed Management of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus in peanuts
for Croplands, Alternative Control of Johnson- by 42 percent when compared to peanuts
grass, Thistle Control Alternatives and Field grown using conventional tillage. This is
Bindweed Control Alternatives. significant because there is no single effec-
tive control measure for spotted wilt of pea-
nuts. As a result, the University of Georgia
Conservation tillage Cooperative Extension Service added con-
Conservation tillage or strip tillage in pea- servation tillage to its Tomato Spotted Wilt
nuts increased in the Southeast due to the Risk Index (Johnson et. al., 2001).
rise in fuel costs and the potential for conser-
vation tillage to reduce labor costs, reduce For more information on conservation tillage,
soil erosion, increase soil quality and reduce read the ATTRA publications Conservation
disease pressure. Conservation tillage also Tillage and Pursuing Conservation Tillage
works in other crops such as corn, cotton and Systems for Organic Crop Production.
soybean (Wright et al., 2002).
Flame weeding and other thermal devices
In conventional strip tillage, herbicides are can reduce broadleaf weeds, but grasses
a major tool to control weeds. For organic still need to be mechanically removed. For a
production, farmers must use other methods list of thermal devices and suppliers, see the
This Georgia farmer planted crimson clover as a cover crop, killed it, then strip tilled peanuts into it. This system attracts many beneficials,
improves the soil, provides low-cost nitrogen, reduces soil erosion and conserves soil moisture. Photos by Rex Dufour.
Page 14 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

15. Appendix section. For more information on can produce aflatoxin, a natural toxin.
flame weeding, read the ATTRA publication Aflatoxin can mean financial losses for
Flame Weeding for Agronomic Crops. peanut growers.
The Peanut Advisory Board in Atlanta, Ga.,
Irrigation estimated that aflatoxin contamination costs
Peanut seedlings develop tap and lateral the nation’s peanut growers $25 million
roots quickly. Seedlings need 20 to 30 annually. The Food and Drug Administra-
inches of water per season. Daily water use tion prohibits grain and fi nished products
is about 0.25 inches per day and 0.4 inches with 20 parts per billion or more of afla-
if the weather is extremely hot (Baker et al., toxin from being sold for human or animal
2000). The Peanut Company of Australia consumption. One part per billion is equiv-
estimates peanuts use at 24 to 28 inches alent to less than one drop in 10,000 gal-
per season (2006). lons. Many states and export markets are
setting stricter tolerance levels.
Water availability is a limiting factor in
Western peanut production. Jimbo Gris- Until recently, the only methods for control-
ling preharvest aflatoxin contamination in
A
som of Gaines County, Texas, the winner
of the 2004 Farm Press Peanut Profitabil- peanuts were expensive irrigation or early flatoxin
ity Award, suggests a low-energy precision harvest, which reduces quality and yield. contamina-
application system to ease the effects of A mutant strain of A. parasiticus was devel- tion costs
evaporation. Grissom aims to lose as little oped to treat soils and drive out virulent
the nation’s peanut
water as possible to evaporation. His modi- strains (USDA/ARS, 1992).
growers $25 million
fied LEPA system uses hoses, usually set
annually.
about 80 inches apart, that dangle from a Harvesting and post harvest
main center-pivot irrigation pipe to either handling
drag along rows or spray water just above
Organic handling is a complex issue. If
the peanut canopy. True LEPA systems, irri-
organic peanuts are processed on-farm in
gation experts say, employ drag hoses that
any way, a second certification as a handler
dribble water along alternate rows. Gris-
or processor may be required. For a more
som’s system uses wobbler nozzles to apply
detailed explanation, see NCAT’s Organic
water just above the peanuts. Ground water Crops Workbook.
availability from the aquifer that underlies
West Texas is declining (Smith, 2004). Jim Riddle of the University of Minnesota,
the former chair of the National Organic
Peanut growers in Randolph County, Ga., Standards Board, published some post-
use center-pivot systems to combat sporadic harvest tips for organic field crop produc-
drought in the Southeast (Smith, 2004). ers. These include the following (adapted
Drought has become more prevalent in for peanuts):
recent years, increasing the need to install
farm irrigation systems. • Know the equipment. Know what the
equipment is used for. This includes
In humid Florida, poor irrigation manage- rented and borrowed equipment and
ment can cause white mold and pod rots, equipment used by custom opera-
leading to lower yields than without irriga- tors. Know how to clean all pieces
tion (Whitty, 2006). of equipment, including planters,
Drought stress constitutes a serious threat combines, wagons, trucks and other
for peanut production because of the danger equipment. Clean equipment prior
of aflatoxin. This problem commonly occurs to use in organic fields and keep
in the last days before harvest, when pea- records to document equipment
nuts under drought stress are most suscepti- cleaning activities.
ble. When fungi such as Aspergillus parasiti- • Know crop storage. Carefully
cus and A. flavus infect peanuts, the fungi inspect storage units prior to use.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15

16. Thoroughly clean bins, dryers, and testing protocols. Communicate
cleaners and other storage units. with buyers and organic certifying
• Know the truckers. Carefully agents if any problems arise.
inspect and clean trucks and trail-
ers prior to loading. Make sure that Summary
transport units, including over- Strategies for successful production of
seas shipping containers, are free organic peanuts will differ by U.S. region.
of foreign matter. Keep records to Organic peanuts now come from New Mex-
document trucks, including clean ico, Arizona and West Texas, where pest
transportation affidavits and bills and disease pressures are much less than
of lading. in the Southeast, where conventional pro-
• Know the farm’s records. Docu- duction historically occurrs. Integrated pest
ment efforts to minimize contami- management strategies are apt to be more
nation. With good records, farmers successful in Western states, including
will have a better chance of limit- California, than east of Interstate 35, about
ing losses, identifying causes of 98 degrees west longitude.
problems and determining liability. Development of pest- and disease-resistant
Valid records of organic yields and varieties is crucial to any organic peanut
sales may help establish claims for production on a scale comparable to that of
losses should contamination or co- conventional production in the Southeast.
mingling occur. Recent research in the Southeast focused on
• Know the buyers. Know the contract development of pest-resistant peanut varieties
specifications the organic crop is for alternative fuel, rather than varieties for
grown under. Know buyers’ sampling organic production of an edible crop.
Wasp –
Ladybird parasite of
beetle – lepidoptera.
aphid
predator.
Tachinid fly – parasite of stinkbugs.
Planting milkweed along a field margin supplies nectar and pollen for a
wide range of beneficial insects that provide free pest control.
Photos by Rex Dufour.
Page 16 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

17. References:
Abdalla, M. E, and G. M. Abdel-Fattah. 2000. Culbreath, Leeann. 2005. Are they nuts? Southern
Influence of the endomycorrhizal fungus Glomus researchers and farmers tackle organic peanuts. The
mosseae on the development of peanut pod rot disease New Farm. www.newfarm.org/features/2005/1105/
in Egypt. Mycorrhiza, Vol.10, No. 1. p. 29-35. peanuts/culbreath.shtml.
American Peanut Council. 2002. About the Peanut Indus- Culbreath, Leeann. 2004. New variety may open way
try. Accessed April 2006. www.peanutsusa.com/index. to grow organic peanuts. Georgia Faces. August. 1 p.
cfm?fuseaction=home.page&pid=12#Export_Markets. http://Georgiafaces.caes.uga.edu/pdf/2314.pdf.
Bailey, J. E., and P. D Brune. 1997. Effect of crop pruning Dawling, Pam. 2006. Peanuts: Grow your own protein.
on Sclerotinia blight of peanut. Plant Disease 81:990-995. Growing for Market. p. 11-13.
Bajwa, W. I., and M. Kogan. 2002. Compendium of Estes, Edmund, Tony Kleese, Laura Lauffer, Danielle
IPM Definitions (CID)– What is IPM and how is it Treadwell and Rachel Burton. 1999. Organic peanuts
defined in the Worldwide Literature? IPPC Publication and organic pecans. An Overview of the North
No. 998, Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC), Carolina Organic Industry. p. 69, 107.
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. p. 3. www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/e/eaestes/are17.pdf
Baker, R.D., R.G. Taylor, and Floyd McAlister. 2000. Georgia Cooperative Extension. 1982. Growing Pea-
Peanut Production Guide (revised). Guide H-648. Col- nuts in Georgia: A Package Approach. University of
lege of Agriculture and Home Economics, New Mexico Georgia Extension, Athens, GA. p. 48.
State University. p. 12. Goodrum, J.W. 1983. Peanut oil as an emergency
Brooks, Nora. 2005. U.S. Agricultural Trade diesel fuel. Paper presented at Summer Meeting of
Update—State Exports. July 8. Abstracted from the American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Economic Research Service, USDA. Table 1. p. 6 Bozeman, MT. p. 10.
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/erssor/trade/ Goodrum, J.W. 1984. Fuel properties of peanut oil
fau-bb/text/2005/fau10201.pdf. blends. Transactions of the ASAE. p. 1,257-1,262.
Bugg, Robert. 1993. Habitat manipulation to enhance Grez, Audrey A. and Ernesto Prado. 2000. Effects
the effectiveness of aphidophagous hover fl ies (Dip- of plant patch shape and surrounding vegetation on
tera: Syrphidae). Sustainable Agriculture Technical the dynamics of predatory Coccinellids and their prey
Reviews. Vol. 5, No. 2. p. 13-15. Brevicoryne brassicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Envi-
Chapin, J.W. and J. S. Thomas. 2005. Insect pest ronmental Entomology. Vol. 29, No. 6. p. 1,244-1,250.
management in strip-till peanut production. In W. Hall, Tim. 2003. News release: Check zinc levels
Busscher, J. Frederick, and S. Robinson (eds.) Proc. for new peanut fields. North Carolina Department of
Southern Conservation Tillage Systems Conf., 27, Agriculture and Consumer Services. p. 1. www.ncagr.
Florence, S. Carolina. June 27-29, 2005, Clemson com/paffairs/release/2003/5-03zinc.htm
Univ. Pee Dee Res. Educ. Ctr., Florence, SC. p. 57. Calculation of Zn-I in terms of parts per million is
Available at: www.ag.auburn.edu/aux/nsdl/sctcsa. from Tucker, M.R., and J. K. Messick, Micronutrients:
Cole, Nancy. 2005. Peanut growing a tough row to 1996, 2005. When enough is enough. MediaNotes for
hoe: Many gave up crop when bill ended quotas. North Carolina Growers. North Carolina Department
October 30, Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. Accessed of Agriculture and Consumer Services.
from Environmental Working Group—EWG in the www.agr.state.nc.us/AGRONOMI/media996.htm.
News. www.ewg.org/news/story.php?id=4576. Hardy, D.H., M.R. Tucker and C.E. Stokes. 2006.
Culbreath, Albert. 2004. Environmental Impact State- Crop fertilization based on North Carolina soil tests.
ment: High Levels of Field Resistance to Tomato Spot- North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Con-
ted Wilt Virus in New Peanut Breeding Lines. CAES, sumer Services, Agronomic Division, Raleigh. Note 3.
Tifton, GA. p. 2. http://apps.caes.uga.edu/impact/ Fertilization of Field Crops. Peanuts. p. 4-5.
viewstatement.cfm?stmtid=2576. www.ncagr.com/agronomi/stnote3.htm
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 17

18. Hollis, Paul L. 2005. Georgia combines peanut virus ARS), D.W. Gorbet (North Florida Research, U. FL),
and fungal disease indexes. Southeast Farm Press. and J.W. Todd (U GA). 2002. Differential response
http://southeastfarmpress.com/news/ of selected peanut (Arachis hypogaea) genotypes to
012005-peanut-index/index.html. mechanical inoculation by Tomato spotted wilt virus.
Hunter, Dan. 1999. Testimony: WTO Listening Plant Disease. Vol. 86, No. 9. p. 939-944.
Session. USDA/FAS. Austin, TX. p. 3. Marlow, Scott and project staff. 1998. The Peanut
www.fas.usda.gov/itp/wto/texas/hunter.html Project: Farmer-Focused Innovation for Sustainable
Hunter testified on behalf of the National Peanut Peanut Production. The Rural Advancement Founda-
Growers Group. tion International–USA, Pittsboro, NC. p. 28.
Johnson, W. C, III, T.B. Brenneman, S.H. Baker, A. Region 4 Strategic Agricultural Initiative X984615-
W. Johnson, D.R. Sumner and B.J. Mullinix Jr. 2001. 98-0. Collaborators: North Carolina State University,
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Page 18 ATTRA Peanuts: Organic Production

19. March 2006. Since then, the agency has completed
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Alternative Field Crops Manual. Minnesota Extension, involving peanuts. Peanuts are now aggregated with
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Madison. 8 p.
vegetables under code 2008119000. This changeover
RAFI-USA. 1998. The Peanut Project: Farmer- to a new method of reporting made it cumbersome to
focused innovation for sustainable peanut production. determine simple export and re-export (after processing)
The Rural Advancement Foundation International— totals for the U.S. peanut crop.
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www.peanutgrower.com/home/1999_ junestory1.html. Production. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sci-
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answers as planting nears. The Peanut Grower. March.
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USDA/ARS. 1993. Great-tasting peanuts? Try hairy! Further resource:
Agricultural Research. December. p. 14. International Certification Services, Inc.
USDA/ARS. 1992. Pitting fungus against fungus. doing business as Farm Verified Organic
Agricultural Research. May. p. 8-9. Customer Contact Information:
ICS, Inc.
USDA/ERS. 2002. Peanut consumption rebound- 301 5th Ave SE
ing amidst market uncertainties. Agriculture Outlook. Medina, ND 58467
March. p. 2. 701-486-3578
USDA/FAS. 2006. www.fas.usda.gov/ustrade 701-486-3580 fax
Note: Peanut export figures given in the text were info@ics-intl.com
abstracted from the USDA FAS statistical reports in www.ics-intl.com/fvo.htm
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 19